Indian
Culture
Index
1.
Classical
Dances of India Page 2
ü Bharatanatyam
dances Page 3
ü Kathakali
dances Page
4
ü Kathak
Page
5
ü Manipuri Page
7
ü Odissi
Page 8
ü Kuchipudi Page 9
ü Sattriya
Dances Page 10
2.
Music of India Page
11
ü Hindustani
Music
Page 11
ü Carnatic
Music
Page 15
ü Regional
Music
Page 20
ü Musical
Instruments Page 23
3.
Theatre
forms of India
Page 28
4.
Puppetry
or Puppet forms of India Page
31
5. Martial Arts of India Page
34
6. A general note on Performing arts Page
37
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“Indian
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7.
Paintings of India
8.
Sculpture of India
9.
Art and Architecture of India
10. Festivals of India with special reference to tribal and state
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*****
1. CLASSICAL DANCES
OF INDIA
Dance in India has a rich and vital tradition dating back to
ancient times. Excavations, inscriptions, chronicles, genealogies of kings and
artists, literary sources, sculpture and painting of different periods provide
extensive evidence on dance. Myths and legends also support the view that dance
had a significant place in the religious and social life of the Indian people.
However, it is not easy to trace the precise history and evolution of the
various dances known as the 'art' or 'classical' forms popular today.
In literature, the first references come from the Vedas where dance and
music have their roots. A more consistent history of dance can be reconstructed
from the epics, the several Puranas and
the rich body of dramatic and poetic literature known as the nataka and the kavya in Sanskrit. A
related development was the evolution of classical Sanskrit drama which was an
amalgam of the spoken word, gestures and mime, choreography, stylised movement
and music. From the 12th century to the 19th century there were many regional
forms called the musical play or sangeet-nataka.
Contemporary classical dance forms are known to have evolved out of these
musical plays
Excavations have brought to light a bronze statuette from
Mohenjodaro and a broken torso from Harappa (dating back to 2500-1500 B.C.E.)
These are suggestive of dance poses. The latter has been identified as the
precursor of the Nataraja pose commonly identified with dancing Siva.
The earliest treatise on dance available to us is Bharat Muni's Natyashastra, the source book of the art of drama, dance and music. It is generally accepted that the date of the work is between the 2nd century B.C.E- 2nd century C.E.The Natyashastra is also known as the fifth veda. According to the author, he has evolved thisveda by taking words from the Rigveda, music from the Samaveda, gestures from the Yajurveda and emotions from the Atharvaveda. There is also a legend that Brahma himself wrote the Natyaveda, which has over 36,000 verses
The earliest treatise on dance available to us is Bharat Muni's Natyashastra, the source book of the art of drama, dance and music. It is generally accepted that the date of the work is between the 2nd century B.C.E- 2nd century C.E.The Natyashastra is also known as the fifth veda. According to the author, he has evolved thisveda by taking words from the Rigveda, music from the Samaveda, gestures from the Yajurveda and emotions from the Atharvaveda. There is also a legend that Brahma himself wrote the Natyaveda, which has over 36,000 verses
In terms of the classical tradition
formulated in the Natyashastra, dance and music are an inextricable
part of drama. The art of natyacarries in it all these constituents
and the actor is himself the dancer and the singer, the performer combined all
the three functions. With the passage of time the status of an independent and
specialised art, marked the beginning of the 'art' dance in India.
As per the ancient treatises, dance
is considered as having three aspects: natya, nritya and nritta.
Natya highlights the dramatic element and most dance forms do not give
emphasis to this aspect today with the exception of dance-drama forms like
Kathakali. Nrityais essentially expressional, performed
specifically to convey the meaning of a theme or idea. Nritta on
the other hand, is pure dance where body movements do not express any mood
(bhava), nor do they convey any meaning. To present nritya and natya effectively,
a dancer should be trained to communicate the navarasas. These are:
love (shringaara), mirth (haasya), compassion (karuna),
valour (veera), anger (roudra), fear (bhayanak),
disgust (bibhatsa), wonder (adbhuta) and
peace (shaanta)
An ancient classification followed in all styles is of Tandava and Lasya. Tandava the
masculine, is heroic bold and vigorous. Lasya the
feminine is soft, lyrical and graceful. Abhinaya,
broadly means expression. This is achieved through angika, the body and
limbs, vachikasong
and speech and aharya,
costume and adornment; and satvika,
moods and emotions.
Bharata and Nandikesvara, the main authorities conceive of
dance as an art which uses the human body as a vehicle of expression. The major
human units of the body (anga) are
identified as the head, torso, the upper and lower limbs and the minor human
parts (upangas),
as all parts of the face ranging from the eyebrow to the chin and the minor
joints.
Two further aspects of natya are the modes of presentation and
the style. There are two modes of presentation, namely the Natyadharmi, which is the
formalised presentation of theatre, and theLokadharmi sometimes
translated as folk, realistic, naturalistic or regional. The style or vrittis are
classified into Kaishiki,
the deft lyrical more suited to convey the lasya aspects, the Arbati, the energetic
masculine the Satvati often
used while depicting the rasas and
the Bharati,
the literary content.
Nurtured for centuries, dance in India has evolved in
different parts of the country its own distinct style taking on the culture of
that particular region, each acquiring its own flavour. Consequently a number
of major styles of 'art' dance are known to us today, like Bharatnatyam,
Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Kathak, Manipuri, Odissi and Sattriya. Then, there are
regional variations, the dances of rural and tribal areas, which range from
simple, joyous celebrations of the seasons, harvest or birth of a child to
dances for the propitiation of demons or for invoking spirits. Today there is
also a whole new body of modern experimental dance.
1. Bharata Natyam Dances:
Bharatnatyam Dance is considered to be over 2000 years old.
Several texts beginning with Bharata Muni's Natya Shastra (200 B.C.E. to 200
C.E.) provide information on this dance form. The Abhinaya Darpana by Nandikesvara is one of the main sources of textual
material, for the study of the technique and grammar of body movement in
Bharatnatyam Dance. There is also a great deal of visual evidence of this dance
form in paintings and stone and metal sculptures of ancient times. On the
gopurams of the Chidambaram temple, one can see a series of Bharatnatyam poses,
frozen in stone as it were, by the sculptor. In many other temples, the charis and karanas of the dance are represented in
sculpture and one can make a study of the dance form.
Bharatnatyam dance is known to be ekaharya, where one dancer takes on
many roles in a single performance. In the early 19th century, the famous
Tanjore Quartette, under the patronage of Raja Serfoji are said to have been
responsible for the repertoire of Bharatnatyam dance as we see it today.
The style was kept alive by the devadasis, who were young girls
'gifted' by their parents to the temples and who were married to the gods. The devadasisperformed
music and dance as offerings to the deities, in the temple courtyards. Some of
the renowned performers and gurus of the early part of the century belong to
the devadasi families,
a well-known name is Bala Saraswati.
The repertoire of Bharatnatyam is extensive, however, a
performance follows a regular pattern. At first there is an invocation song.
The first dance item is thealarippu,
literally meaning - to adorn with flowers. It is an abstract piece combining
pure dance with the recitation of sound syllables.
The next item, the jatiswaram is a short pure dance piece performed
to the accompaniment of musical notes of any raga of Carnatic music. Jatiswaram has no sahitya or words, but is composed of adavuswhich
are pure dance sequences - nritta. They form the
basis of training in Bharatnatyam dance.
As a solo dance, Bharatnatyam leans heavily on the abhinaya or mime aspect of dance - the nritya, where the dancer expresses
the sahitya through
movement and mime. Shabdam follows the jatiswaram in a
Bharatnatyam dance performance. The accompanying song is generally in adoration
of the Supreme Being.
After the shabdam, the
dancer performs the varnam. The varnam which is the most important
composition of the Bharatnatyam repertoire, encompasses both nritta and nritya and epitomises the essence of this
classical dance form. The dancer here performs complicated well graded rhythmic
patterns in two speeds showing the control over rhythm, and then goes on to depict in
a variety of ways, through abhinaya the lines of the sahitya. This portrays the dancer's
excellence in abhinaya and also reflects the endless creativity of the
choreographer.
The varnam is by far one of the most beautiful compositions in Indian dance.
The varnam is by far one of the most beautiful compositions in Indian dance.
After the strenuous varnam, the dancer
performs a number of abhinaya items expressing a variety of moods.
The bhava orrasa is woven into the sahitya and then expressed by the dancer. The
common pieces are keertanam, kritis, padams andjavalis. In the keertanam, the text is important
whereas kriti is a composition in which the musical
aspect is highlighted. Both are usually devotional in character and represent
episodes from the lives of Rama, Siva, Vishnu, etc. Padams andjavalis, are on the theme of love,
often divine.
A Bharatnatyam performance ends with a tillana which has its origin in the tarana of Hindustani music. It is a vibrant
dance performed to the accompaniment of musical syllables with a few lines of sahitya. The finale of the piece is a
series of well designed rhythmic lines reaching a climax. The performance ends
with a mangalam invoking the blessings of the Gods.
The accompanying orchestra consists of a vocalist, a
mridangam player, violinist or veena player, a flautist and a cymbal player.
The person who conducts the dance recitation is the Nattuvanar
2.Kathakali
Dance:
Kerala is the home of several
traditional dance and dance - drama forms, the most notable being Kathakali.
Kathakali, as a dance form
popular today, is considered to be of comparatively recent origin. However, it
is an art which has evolved from many social and religious theatrical forms
which existed in the southern region in ancient times. Chakiarkoothu,
Koodiyattam, Krishnattam andRamanattam are
few of the ritual performing arts of Kerala which have had a direct influence
on Kathakali in its form and technique. Legend has it that the refusal of the
Zamorin of Calicut to send his Krishnattam troupe to
Travancore, so enraged the Raja of Kottarakkara, that he was inspired to
compose the Ramanattam.
In the temple sculptures in
Kerala and the frescoes in the Mattancheri temple of approximately the 16th
century, dance scenes depicting the square and rectangular basic positions so
typical to Kathakali are seen. For body movements and choreographical patterns,
Kathakali is also indebted to the early martial arts of Kerala.
Kathakali is a blend of dance, music
and acting and dramatizes stories, which are mostly adapted from the Indian
epics. It is a stylised art form, the four aspects of abhinaya - angika, aharya,
vachika, satvika and the nritta, nritya and natya aspects
are combined perfectly. The dancer expresses himself through codified
hastamudras and facial expressions, closely following the verses (padams) that
are sung. Kathakali derives its textual sanction from Balarama
Bharatam andHastalakshana Deepika.
The attakkathasor stories are selected from the epics and myths and are written in a highly Sanskritised verse form in Malayalam. Many Malayalam writers have also contributed to the vast repertoire of Kathakali literature.
Kathakali is a visual art where aharya, costume
and make-up are suited to the characters, as per the tenets laid down in
the Natya
Shastra. The characters are grouped under certain clearly
defined types like the pacha, kathi, thadi, kari or minukku. The face
of the artist is painted over to appear as though a mask is worn. The lips, the
eyelashes and the eyebrows are made to look prominent. A mixture of rice paste
and lime is applied to make the chutti on
the face which highlights the facial make-up.
Kathakali dance is chiefly interpretative. The characters in
a Kathakali performance are broadly divided into satvika, rajasika and tamasika types.
Satvika characters are noble, heroic, generous and refined. In pacha, green
colour dominates and kirita (headgear)
is worn by all. Krishna and Rama wear special crowns decorated with peacock
feathers. The noble characters like Indra, Arjun and the Devas are some of
the pacha
characters.
The kathi type
depicts anti-heroes. Though they are of the rajasika category, they are
sometimes great warriors and scholars such as Ravana, Kamsa and Sisupala to
name a few. The moustache and the small knob called chuttippu fixed
on "the tip of the nose and another in the centre of the forehead is
peculiar to the kathi character. The characters of
the thadi (beard) category are the chuvanna
thadi, (red beard), vellathadi (white beard)
and the karutha thadi (black beard). Vellathadi or
the white bearded character is generally that of Hanuman, the dancer also wears
the costume of a monkey. Kari are characters whose
make-up have a black base, they wear black costume depicting a hunter or forest
dweller. Apart from these, there are minor characters like minukku which
are the women and sages. Kathakali costumes and make-up are elaborate and
designed so as to give a super human effect. The make-up of Kathakali can be
classified into the teppu, chuttikuthu and uduthukettu.
The teppud done by the actor himself. Each character has a distinct teppu.
The second stage is done by experts who specialise in make-up. The wearing of
huge bellowing skirts is called uduthukettu.
A simple stage is used. A large
oil-fed lamp is placed in front of the stage and two people hold a curtain
called Tirasseela on the stage, the main dancers stand
behind it before the performance.
In no other dance style is the entire body used so completely
as in Kathakali. The technical details cover every part of the body from facial
muscles to fingers, eyes, hands and wrists. The facial muscles play an
important part. The movement of the eyebrows, the eye-balls and the lower
eye-lids as described in the Natya Shastra are not used to such an extent in
any other dance style. The weight of the body is on the outer edges of the feet
which are slightly bent and curved.
Kalasams are
pure dance sequences where the actor is at great liberty to express himself and
display his skills. The leaps, quick turns, jumps and the rhythmic
co-ordination make kalasams, a joy to watch.
A Kathakali performance begins with
the kelikottu, calling the audience to attention followed by
the todayam. It is a devotional number performed where one
or two characters invoke the blessings of the gods. Kelikottu is
the formal announcement of the performance done in the evening when drums and
cymbals are played for a while in the courtyard. A pure nritta piece known as
the purappadu comes as a sequel to this. Then the
musicians and drummers hold the stage entertaining the audience with an
exhibition of their skills in melappada. Tiranokku is
the debut on the stage of all characters other than the pacha or
minukku. Thereafter, the play or the particular scene of the chosen
play begins
Kathakali music follows the
traditional sopana sangeet of Kerala. It is said to be
the ritual singing of the Ashtapadis on the flight of
steps leading to the sanctum sanctorum. Now, Kathakali music
also uses Carnatic ragas-the raga and talaconforming
to the bhava, rasa and dance
patterns (nritta and natya). The orchestra which is
also used in other traditional performing arts of Kerala, normally comprises
the Chenda, Maddalam, Chengila, Ilathalam, Idakka and Shankhu.
Ilakiattam is that part of the performance when the characters get an opportunity to demonstrate their excellence inabhinaya. For the most part of the performance the dancers engage themselves in chodiattam which means acting in strict conformity to the words in the padams sung by the accompanying musicians.
Ilakiattam is that part of the performance when the characters get an opportunity to demonstrate their excellence inabhinaya. For the most part of the performance the dancers engage themselves in chodiattam which means acting in strict conformity to the words in the padams sung by the accompanying musicians.
Thanks to the service done by the
poet Vallathol, this classical dance form received a new impetus and today many
innovations are also being made to suit the needs of a changing society.
3. Kathak
Dance:
The word Kathak has been derived
from the word Katha which means a story. Kathakars or
story-tellers, are people who narrate stories largely based on episodes from
the epics, myths and legends. It probably started as an oral tradition. Mime
and gestures were perhaps added later on to make the recitation more effective.
Thus evolved a simple form of expressional dance, providing the origins of what
later developed into Kathak as we see it today.
The Vaishnavite cult which swept
North India in the 15th century and the resultant bhakti movement contributed
to a whole new range of lyrics and musical forms. The Radha-Krishna theme
proved immensely popular alongwith the works of Mirabai, Surdas, Nandadas and
Krishnadas.
The emergence of Raslila,
mainly in the Braj region (Mathura in Western U.P.) was an important
development. It combined in itself music, dance and the narrative. Dance in
Raslila, however, was mainly an extension of the basic mime and gestures of
the Kathakars or story-tellers which blended easily
with the existing traditional dance.
With the coming of the Mughals, this
dance form received a new impetus. A transition from the temple courtyard to
the palace durbar took place which necessitated changes
in presentation. In both Hindu and Muslim courts, Kathak became highly stylised
and came to be regarded as a sophisticated form of entertainment. Under the
Muslims there was a greater stress on nritya and bhavagiving
the dance graceful, expressive and sensuous dimensions.
The nineteenth century saw the golden age of Kathak under the
patronage of Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Oudh. He established the
Lucknow gharana with
its strong accent on bhava,
the expression of moods and emotions. The Jaipur gharana known
for its layakari or
rhythmic virtuosity and the Benaras gharana are
other prominent schools of Kathak dance. The technique of movement in Kathak is
unique to it.
The weight of the body is equally distributed along the horizontal and vertical axis. The full foot contact is of prime importance where only the toe or the balls of the foot are used, their function is limited. There are no deflections and no use of sharp bends or curves of the upper or lower part of the body. Torso movements emerge from the change of the shoulder line rather than through the manipulations of the backbone or upper chest and lower waist muscles. In the basic stance, the dancer stands straight, holds one hand at a level higher than the head and the other is extended out on the level of the shoulder.
The technique is built by the use of an intricate system of
foot-work. Pure dance (nritta) is
all important where complex rhythmic patterns are created through the use of
the flat feet and the control of sound of the ankle bells worn by the dancer.
As in Bharatnatyam, Odissi and Manipuri, Kathak also builds its pure dance
sequences by combining units of movement. The cadences are called differently
by the names tukra, tora, and parana, all
indicative of the nature of rhythmic patterns used and the percussion
instrument accompanying the dance. The dancer commences with a sequence
called That where
soft gliding movements of the neck, eyebrows and the wrists, are introduced.
This is followed by a conventional formal entry known as the Amad (entry)
and theSalami (salutation).
Then follow the various combinations of rhythmic passages all
punctuated with and culminating in a number of pirouettes. The pirouettes are
the most characteristic feature of the dance style in nritta portions.
Recitation of the rhythmic syllables is common; the dancer often pauses to recite
these to a specified metrical cycle followed by execution through movement.
The nritta portion
of Kathak is performed to the nagma.
Both the drummer (here the drum is either a pakhawaj, a type of mridangam, or a
pair of tabla) and the dancer weave endless combinations on a repetitive
melodic line. The metrical cycle (tala) of
16, 10, 14 beats provides the foundation on which the whole edifice of dance is
built.
In the mime portions (nritya or abhinaya), words
are not used in simple numbers called the gata, which is
performed in a lyrical manner to gentle rhythm. These are short narrative
pieces which portray a brief episode from Krishna's life. A poetic line set to
music is interpreted with gestures in other numbers, such as the tumri, bhajan, dadra - all
lyrical musical compositions.
In these sections, there is a word to word or line to line synchronisation in the same fashion as in Bharatnatyam or Odissi. Both in nritta (pure dance) and the abhinaya (mime) there is immense scope for improvisation of presenting variations on a theme. The interpretative and the abstract dance techniques are interwoven into each other, and the dancer's greatness lies in his capacity for improvisation on the melodic and metric line on the one hand and the poetic line on the other.
In these sections, there is a word to word or line to line synchronisation in the same fashion as in Bharatnatyam or Odissi. Both in nritta (pure dance) and the abhinaya (mime) there is immense scope for improvisation of presenting variations on a theme. The interpretative and the abstract dance techniques are interwoven into each other, and the dancer's greatness lies in his capacity for improvisation on the melodic and metric line on the one hand and the poetic line on the other.
Today, Kathak has emerged as a distinct dance form. Being the
only classical dance of India having links with Muslim culture, it represents a
unique synthesis of Hindu and Muslim genius in art. Further, Kathak is the only
form of classical dance wedded to Hindustani or the North Indian music. Both of
them have had a parallel growth, each feeding and sustaining the other.
4. Manipuri:
Manipuri, one of the main styles
of Indian Art or Classical Dancesoriginated
in the picturesque and secluded state of Manipur in the north-eastern corner of
India. Because of its geographical location, the people of Manipur have been
protected from outside influences, and this region has been able to retain its
unique traditional culture.
The origin of Manipuri dance can be
traced back to ancient times that go beyond recorded history. The dance in
Manipur is associated with rituals and traditional festivals, there are
legendary references to the dances of Shiva and Parvati and other gods and
goddesses who created the universe.
Lai Haraoba is one of the main festivals still performed in Manipur which has its roots in the pre-Vaishnavite period. Lai Haraoba is the earliest form of dance which forms the basis of all stylised dances in Manipur. Literally meaning - the merrymaking of the gods, it is performed as a ceremonial offering of song and dance. The principal performers are the maibas and maibis (priests and priestesses) who re-enact the theme of the creation of the world.
With the arrival of Vaishnavism in
the 15th century A.D., new compositions based on episodes from the life of
Radha and Krishna were gradually introduced. It was in the reign of King
Bhagyachandra that the popular Rasleela dances of
Manipur originated. It is said, that this 18th century philosopher king
conceived this complete dance form along with its unique costume and music in a
dream. Under successive rulers, new leelas, and rhythmic and
melodic compositions were introduced.
Manipur dance has a large
repertoire, however, the most popular forms are the Ras,
the Sankirtanaand the Thang-Ta. There are
five principal Ras dances of which four are linked with
specific seasons, while the fifth can be presented at any time of the year. In
Manipuri Ras, the main characters are Radha, Krishna and the gopis.
The themes often depict the pangs of
separation of the gopis and Radha from Krishna.
The parengs or pure dance sequences performed in
the Rasleela dances follow the specific rhythmic
patterns and body movements, which are traditionally handed down. TheRas
costume consists of a richly embroidered stiff skirt which extends
to the feet.
A short fine white muslin skirt is
worn over it. A dark coloured velvet blouse covers the upper part of the body
and a traditional white veil is worn over a special hair-do which falls
gracefully over the face. Krishna wears a yellow dhoti, a dark velvet jacket
and a crown of peacock feathers. The jewellery is very delicate and the designs
are unique to the region.
The Kirtan form of congregational singing accompanies the dance
which is known as Sankirtana in Manipur. The male dancers play the Pung and
Kartal while dancing. The masculine aspect of dance - the Choloms are a part of
the Sankirtana tradition. The Pung and Kartal choloms are performed at all
social and religious festivals.
The martial dancers of Manipur - the Thang-ta - have their
origins in the days when man's survival depended on his ability to defend
himself from wild animals.
Today, Manipur has an evolved and sophisticated repertoire of
martial dances, the dancers use swords, spears and shields. Real fight scenes
between the dancers show an extensive training and control of the body.
Manipuri dance incorporates both the tandava and lasya and
ranges from the most vigorous masculine to the subdued and graceful feminine.
Generally known for its lyrical and graceful movements, Manipuri dance has an
elusive quality. In keeping with the subtleness of the style, Manipuri abhinaya does
not play up the mukhabhinaya very much - the facial
expressions are natural and not exaggerated -sarvangabhinaya, or
the use of the whole body to convey a certain rasa, is its forte.
The rhythmic complexities are
usually overlooked as the dancers do not wear ankle bells to stamp out the
rhythms in a theatrical display, as this interferes with the delicate body
movements. However, Manipuri dance and music has a highly evolved tala
system.
The Manipuri classical style of
singing is called Nat - very different from both north
and south Indian music, this style is immediately recognizable with its high
pitched open throated rendering with particular type of trills and modulations.
The main musical instrument is the Pung or the Manipuri
classical drum. There are also many other kinds of drums used in Manipuri dance
and music. The Pena, a stringed instrument is used in Lai Haraoba and Pena singing.
Various kinds of cymbals are used in Sankirtana and Ras. The flute is also used
to accompany vocal singing.
The Ashtapadis of
Jayadeva's Geeta Govinda are very popular and are sung
and danced in Manipur with great religious fervour.
Besides the Ras and
other leelas, each stage in one's life is celebrated with Sankirtana
performances - child birth, upanayanam, wedding
and shradha are all occasions for singing and dancing
in Manipur. The whole community participates as song and dance form part of
daily life expressions.
5. Odissi:
Orissa, on the eastern sea
coast, is the home of Odissi, one of the many forms of Indian classical dance.
Sensuous and lyrical, Odissi is a dance of love and passion touching on the
divine and the human, the sublime and the mundane. The Natya Shastra mentions
many regional varieties, such as the south-eastern style known as the Odhra Magadha which
can be identified as the earliest precursor of present day Odissi.
Archaeological evidence of this dance form dating back to the
2nd century B.C. is found in the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri near
Bhubaneshwar. Later, innumerable examples of the Buddhist sculptures, the
tantric images of dancing Yoginis, the Nataraja, and other celestial musicians
and dancers of early Shaivite temples bear testimony to a continuing tradition
of dance from the 2nd century B.C.E to the 10th century C.E. These influences
found synthesis in an unique philosophy - the dharma or faith of
Jagannath. With Hinduism taking roots in Orissa by about the 7th century A.D.,
many imposing temples were erected. The magnificent Sun Temple at Konarak,
built in the 13th century, with its Natya mandap or Hall of dance,
marks the culmination of the temple building activity in Orissa. These dance
movements, frozen in stone, continue to inspire Odissi dancers even today.
For centuries maharis were
the chief repositories of this dance. The maharis, who were
originally temple dancers came to be employed in royal courts which resulted in
the degeneration of the art form. Around this time, a class of boys
called gotipuas were trained in the art, they danced in
the temples and also for general entertainment. Many of today's gurus of this
style belong to the gotipua tradition.
Odissi is a highly stylised dance
and to some extent is based on the classical Natya Shastra and
the Abhinaya Darpana. In fact, it has derived a great deal from the Abhinaya Darpana Prakasha by
Jadunatha Sinha, theAbhinaya Chandrika by Rajmani Patra, and
the Abhinaya Chandrika by Maheshwara Mahapatra.
As in other parts of India, creative
literature inspired the Odissi dancer also and provided the themes for dance.
This is especially true of the 12th century Gita Govinda by
Jayadeva. It is a profound example of thenayaka-nayika bhava
and surpasses other poems in its poetic and stylistic content. The devotion of
the poet for Krishna permeates through the work.
Odissi closely follows the tenets laid down by the Natya Shastra.
Facial expressions, hand gestures and body movements are used to suggest a
certain feeling, an emotion or one of the nine rasas.
The techniques of movement are built around the two basic postures of the Chowk and the Tribhanga. The chowk is a position imitating a square - a very masculine stance with the weight of the body equally balanced. The tribhanga is a very feminine stance where the body is deflected at the neck, torso and the knees.
The techniques of movement are built around the two basic postures of the Chowk and the Tribhanga. The chowk is a position imitating a square - a very masculine stance with the weight of the body equally balanced. The tribhanga is a very feminine stance where the body is deflected at the neck, torso and the knees.
The torso movement is very important
and is a unique feature of the Odissi style. With the lower half of the body
remains static, the torso moves from one side to the other along the axis
passing through the centre of the upper half of the body. Great training is
required for this control so as to avoid any shoulder or hip movement. There
are certain foot positions with flat, toe or heel contact. These are used in a
variety of intricate combinations. There are also numerous possibilities of leg
movements. Almost all leg movements are spiral or circular, whether in space or
on the ground.
In addition to the leg movement,
there are a variety of gaits for doing pirouettes and jumps and also certain
postures inspired by the sculptures. These bhangis, as they
are called are really units of movement ending in one particular stance.
Hand gestures play an important role
both in nritta where they are used only as decorative
embellishments and in nritya where they are used for
communication.
The formal repertoire of Odissi has
a certain order of presentation, where each successive item is systematically
put together to produce the desired rasa.
The opening item is Mangalacharan where
the dancer slowly enters the stage with flowers in her hands and makes an
offering to mother earth. This is followed by an invocation to the deity of the
dancer's choice. Generally, Ganesha is called upon to grant an auspicious
beginning. The item ends with a nritta sequence with
salutations to God, the Guru and the audience.
The next item is called Batu where
the basic concepts of the Odissi nritta technique are
highlighted bringing out the duality of the masculine and the feminine through
the basic stance of the chauk and tribhanga.
This is danced in praise of Batukeshwar Bhairav or Shiva.
The accompanying music is very simple -only a refrain of dance syllables.
After the very basic exposition
of nritta in Batu, comes the
flowering and ornamentation of music and movements in Pallavi. A musical
composition in a particular raga is visually
represented by the dancer with slow and subtle movements, building up into
complex patterns highlighting rhythmic variations within the talastructure.
This is followed by the rendering of abhinaya. Orissa has a continuing tradition of dancing of theAshtapadis of Jayadeva's Gita Govinda since the 12th century. The lyricism of this poem is particularly suited to the Odissi style. Apart from the Gita Govinda, the compositions of other Oriya poets like Upendra Bhanja, Baladeva Ratha, Banamali and Gopal Krishna are also sung.
onabhinaya, is
called moksha. Pakhawaj syllables
are recited and the dance moves from slow to quick sequences to reach a climax,
when the dancer pays the final obeisance.
An Odissi orchestra essentially
consists of a pakhawaj player (usually the Guru
himself), a singer, a flutist, a sitar or violin player
and a manjira player.
The dancer is adorned in elaborate
Oriya silver jewellery and a special hair-do. The sari,
usually stitched nowadays, is unique to the style.
In each performance, even a modern
Odissi dancer still reaffirms the faith of the devadasis ormaharis where
they sought liberation or moksha through the medium of dance.
6. Kuchipudi:
Kuchipudi is one of the classical styles of Indian dance.
Around the third and fourth decade of this century it emerged out of a long
rich tradition of dance-drama of the same name.
In fact, Kuchipudi is the name of a village in the Krishna
district of Andhra Pradesh. It is about 35 km. from Vijayawada. Andhra has a
very long tradition of dance-drama which was known under the generic name of
Yakshagaana. In 17th century Kuchipudi style of Yakshagaana was conceived by
Siddhendra Yogi a talented Vaishnava poet and visionary who had the capacity to
give concrete shape to some of his visions. He was steeped in the
literary Yakshagaana tradition
being guided by his guru Teerthanaaraayana Yogi who composed the Krishna-Leelatarangini.
a kaavya in
Sanskrit.
It is said that Siddhendra Yogi had a dream in which Lord
Krishna asked him to compose a dancedrama based on the myth of the bringing
of paarijaata flower
for Sathyabhaama,
the most beloved queen of Krishna. In compliance with this command Siddhendra
Yogi composed the Bhaamaakalaapam which
is till now considered the piece-deresistance of the Kuchipudi repertoire.
Siddhendra Yogi initiated young Brahmin boys of Kuchipudi village to practice
and perform his compositions particularly Bhaamaakalaapam. The presentation of
Bhaamaakalaapam was a stupendous success. Its aesthetic appeal was so great
that the then Nawab of Golconda, Abdul Hasan Tanishah issued a copper plate in
1675 A.D. granting the village Kuchipudi as an Agrahaarama to the families of
Brahmins who pursued this art. At that time all the actors were male and the
female impersonation was of a superb quality. To have an idea of the high
standard of female impersonation one should see Vedaantam Satyanarayana Sharma,
a great Kuchipudi dancer, even today doing the role of Satyabhaama.
The followers of Siddhendra Yogi wrote several plays and the
tradition of Kuchipudi dance-drama continues till today. It was Lakshminarayan
Shastry (1886-1956) who introduced many new elements including solo dancing and
training of female dancers in this dance style.
Solo dancing was there earlier, but only as a part of the dance drama at appropriate sequences. 'At times, even though the dramatic situation did not demand, solo dancing was being presented to punctuate the presentation and to enhance the appeal. One such number is tarangam inspired by the Krishna-leela tarangini of Teerthanarayana Yogi.
Solo dancing was there earlier, but only as a part of the dance drama at appropriate sequences. 'At times, even though the dramatic situation did not demand, solo dancing was being presented to punctuate the presentation and to enhance the appeal. One such number is tarangam inspired by the Krishna-leela tarangini of Teerthanarayana Yogi.
To show the dexterity of the dancers in footwork and their
control and balance over their bodies, techniques like dancing on the rim of a
brass plate and with a pitcher full of water on the head was introduced.
Acrobatic dancing became part of the repertoire. By the middle of this century,
Kuchipudi fully crystallized as a separate classical solo dance style. Thus
there are now two forms of Kuchipudi; the traditional musical dance-drama and
the solo dance.
From the later part of the fourth decade of this century a
sequence of the presentation of the solo recital has been widely accepted. A
recital of Kuchipudi begins with an invocatory number, as is done in some other
classical dance styles. Earlier the invocation was limited to Ganesha Vandana.
Now other gods are also invoked. It is followed by nritta, that is,
non-narrative and abstract dancing. Usually jatiswaram is
performed as the nritta number.
Next is presented a narrative number called shabdam. One of the favourite
traditional shabdam number
is the Dashaavataara.
The Shabdam is
followed by a natyanumber
called Kalaapam.
Many Kuchipudi dancers prefer to perform entry of Satyabhama from the
traditional dance-drama Bhaamaakalaapam. The song "bhamane, satyabhamane,
the traditionalpraveshadaaru (the
song that is rendered at the time of the entry of a character) is so tuneful
that its appeal is universal and ever fresh. Next in the sequence comes a
pure nrityaabhinaya number
based on literary-cum musical forms like padam, jaavli, shlokam, etc. In
such a number each of the sung words is delineated in space through
dance, drishya-kavita (visual
poetry). A Kuchipudi recital is usually concluded with tarangam. Excerpts
of Krishna-leela-tarangini are
sung with this number. In this the dancer usually stands on a brass plate
locking the feet in shakatavadanam paada
and moves the plate rhythmically with great dexterity.
he music that accompanies the dance is according to the
classical school of Carnatic music and is delightfully syncopatic. The
accompanying musicians, besides the vocalist are: a mridangam player
to provide percussion music, a violin or veena player
or both for providing instrumental melodic music, and a cymbal player who
usually conducts the orchestra and recites the sollukattus (mnemonic
rhythm syllables).
7. Sattriya Dance:
The Sattriya dance form was
introduced in the 15th century A.D by the great Vaishnava saint and reformer of
Assam, Mahapurusha Sankaradeva as a powerful medium for propagation of the
Vaishnava faith. The dance form evolved and expanded as a distinctive style of
dance later on. This neo-Vaishnava treasure of Assamese dance and drama has
been, for centuries, nurtured and preserved with great commitment by the
Sattras i.e. Vaishnava maths or monasteries. Because of
its religious character and association with the Sattras, this dance style has
been aptly named Sattriya.
Sankaradeva introduced this dance
form by incorporating different elements from various treatises, local folk
dances with his own rare outlook. There were two dance forms prevalent in Assam
before the neo-Vaishnava movement such as Ojapali and Devadasi with many
classical elements. Two varieties of Ojapali dances are still prevalent in
Assam i.e. Sukananni or Maroi Goa Ojah and Vyah Goa Ojah. Sukananni Oja paali
is of Sakti cult and Vyah Goa Oja paali is of Vaishnava cult. Sankaradeva
included Vyah Goa Ojah into his daily rituals in Sattra. Till now Vyah Goa Ojah
is a part of rituals of the Sattras of Assam. The dancers in a Oja paali chorus
not only sing and dance but also explain the narration by gestures and stylized
movements. As far as Devadasi dance is concerned, resemblance of a good number
of rhythmic syllables and dance postures along with footwork with Sattriya
dance is a clear indication of the influence of the former on the latter. Other
visible influences on Sattriya dance are those from Assamese folk dances namely
Bihu, Bodos etc. Many hand gestures and rhythmic syllables are strikingly
similar in these dance forms.
Sattriya dance tradition is governed by strictly laid down
principles in respect of hastamudras, footworks, aharyas, music
etc. This tradition, has two distinctly separate streams - the Bhaona-related
repertoire starting from the Gayan-Bhayanar Nach to the Kharmanar Nach,
secondly the dance numbers which are independent, such as Chali, Rajagharia
Chali, Jhumura, Nadu Bhangi etc. Among them the Chali is characterized by
gracefulness and elegance, while the Jhumura is marked by vigor and majestic
beauty.
2. MUSIC of INDIA:
1. Hindustani Music:
Throughout the ages,
man has sought to express the stirrings of his soul, the search for something
beyond the mundane through the medium of the arts.
The evolution of
poetry, painting and other visual arts has been preserved on stone, leaves and
paper but music being auditory, no such evidence exists. As such it is not
possible to listen today to the music of the ancient times.
Inspite of such a
variety of cultural interactions, our music has remained essentially melodic.
In melody, one note follows the other, making for a continued unity of effect,
whereas in harmony musical sounds are superimposed on one another. Our
classical music has retained its melodic quality.
Today we recognise two
systems of classical music: the Hindustani and the Carnatic. Carnatic music is
confined to Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The classical
music of the rest of the country goes under the name, Hindustani Classical
Music. Of course. there are some areas in Karnataka and Andhra where the
Hindustani Classical system is also practiced. Karnataka has given us in the
recent past some very distinguished musicians of the Hindustani style.
It is generally
believed that the music of India was more or less uniform before the 13th
century. Later it bifurcated into the two musical systems.
The present Indian
music has grown from ancient times. Almost every tribe or people have lent
their own share in this growth. What therefore, we now call a raga might
have started as a tribal or folk tune
It is usual to begin the history of Indian
music with the melodic patterns of Vedic chanting. The oldest music, which
possessed a grammar, was the Vedic.
Of course, the Rig-Veda is
said to be the oldest: nearly 5000 years old. The psalms of the Rig-Veda were
called the richas.
TheYajur Veda was
also a religious chant. But actual music in Northern or Southern India, of
those bygone days could not have only been of this kind. There were non-Aryan
people with their own art. For instance, Santhal music from the Eastern region
of India may have been passed down from them. While the differences are
obvious, there is no doubt that such music of the people contributed to the
formation of what we now call Hindustani Classical Music.
Natya Shastra of Bharata is
another important landmark in the history of Indian music. It is supposed to
have been written sometime between the 2nd century B.C. and the 2nd century
A.D. Some scholars are even doubtful whether it is the work of one author and
the work might well have been a compendium - at least, the version which is
available to us. The Natya Shastra is a comprehensive work mainly dealing with
dramaturgy. But a few chapters of this deal with music. Therein we get
information on scales, melodic forms, tala and musical instruments. The then
contemporary music recognized two standard scales. These were called gramas. The
word grama is
itself perhaps derivable from the idea of group or sect: a village, for
instance. This probably led to a set of svaras or notes being calledgrama. This could
roughly be translated as scales. There were then two gramas prevalent.
One was called the Shadja
grama, the other one was the Madhyama grama. The
difference between the two was only in one note, the panchama. To speak
more accurately, we say that the panchama in madhyama grama was
one sruti lower
than the panchama in shadja grama.
The sruti thus is the unit of
measure or small difference between the various consecutive pitches within a
grama or a scale. For all practical purposes they are said to be twenty two.
This is only as far as practical enumeration is concerned. just as we would say
that there are seven notes in an octave or saptak - from
Sa to upper Sa. But in reality the number of srutis employed
in Indian music is infinite.
Getting back to gramas in Bharata's time, there
were two, with seven notes each. Bharata also mentions two other note: these
were the antara
gandhara and kakali nishada.
Now, from each grama subsidiary scales are
derived. These are called moorcchanas.
The notes are played or sung in a descending manner. There are seven basic
notes in a scale, hence there can be seven moorcchanas. There
were two gramas and each had seven standard notes and two auxiliary ones, as
was mentioned. Since each note could give a moorcchana,
numerous such subsidiary scales could be obtained. It is possible to show that
there could be sixty-four moorcchanas derivable
from two gramas.
The process gave different tonal orders within which could be grouped or from
which could be evolved, all known classical melodies of those days. This
condition remained for many centuries. In approximately the 13th century A.D.
Sarangadeva - whose forefathers hailed from Kashmir - settled in South India
and wrote his monumental Sangeeta
Ratankara. He also described technical terms such
as gramas and
moorcchanas. The standard scales were still the same. But whereas Bharata
mentions two auxiliary svaras,
the number and definition of these were very different in medieval times.
The whole scheme, what
is often called the modal music, seems so strange to us now. But there is no
doubting the fact that it was a very highly advanced and a scientific one.
From about the 11th
century, music from Central and West Asia began to influence our music
tradition. Gradually this influence took a deeper root and many changes took
place. Of these, an important one is the disappearance of gramas and moorcchanas.
Sometime around about
the 15th century, this process of change became manifest, the grama system
became obsolete. The concept of mela or thata takes
its place. In this there is only one standard scale. All known notes are
referred to a common note Sa.
By about the 18th
century even the standard or shuddha svara in
Hindustani music becomes different. The following is the current one, accepted
from the 18th century.
Sa re ga ma pa dha ni
This is the mela aaroh
of the modern raga Bilaval. Besides these seven shuddha notes or svaras there
are five variants, making in all twelve notes to a saptak.
Sa re re ga ga ma ma
pa dha dha ni ni
There are, of course,
finer variations: these are the shrutis, It is better,
therefore, to call these 12 tonal regions rather than notes.
All known ragas are
grouped within this twelve tone scale. Indeed. it was a Carnatic musicologist -
Venkatmukhi of the 17th century, who gave a system of 72 melas formed out of
these twelve tones. Later on, in the 20th century, Pt. Bhatkhande, chose 10 out
of the 72 to classify Hindustani ragas.
So far we have been
speaking of scales: the grama, moorcchana and mela.
These are obviously concepts developed after melodies were born. No folk singer
thinks of a grama or a mela. The
tribal and folk songs existed and still exist without a conscious grammar. It
is the musicologist who later classifies melodies or ragas into
scales.
We shall now turn our
attention to the melodic structures. Again it is to the Vedas that we must turn
for the first codified melody. In theNatya Shastra of
Bharata are found descriptions of melodic forms called jati.
How they were sung or played, we have no idea; but some salient points can be
called from Natya Shastra and later commentaries. Every
one of these jatis could be put in some moorcchana or
the other. They were distinguished by characteristics like the graha (starting
note) nyasa (note on which a phrase stops). the range
of notes - from low pitch to high - and so on. Many scholars are of the opinion
that the concept of raga which is so basic to our
music, was born and developed out of jati. The major work
dealing with the raga is the Brihaddesi of Matanga. The
work is dated around the 6th century, A.D. By this time, the idea of the raga as
a melodic scheme had become clear and well defined. Matanga was from the
southern areas of India, to be specific he was from Carnatic. This shows that
up to this era, at least, the grammar of Indian music was more or less one
throughout the country. Secondly, what he deals with is desi music.
That is why he had titled the work Brihaddesi.
A characteristic
contribution of India to musical rhythm is the tala. Tala is
a cyclic arrangement of time units. The basic units of time division are laghu,
guru, and pluta. These are actually derived from poetic prosody. Laghu comprises
one syllable,guru two, and plutathree.
There are also larger units. Bharata's Natya Shastra gives details of
construction of tala out of various time units, how
they should be played and so on. Later authors developed a scheme of 108 talas.
Besides some ancient talas new ones, as for example,
Firdost, seem to have entered Hindustani music. The most important aspect of
playing the tala in the Hindustani system has been the
development of the ideas of theka. This technique is characteristic of
Hindustani music. A theka is the definition of a tala by the stroke of a tabla.
Each stroke on the drum has a name called a bol or syllable. For instance, dha,
ta, ghe. etc.
In any language one
can have an epic, a sonnet, a lyric, a short story and so on. Similarly, given
a raga and a tala, various
musical forms have been created. Right from ancient times, musical forms can be
divided into two broad categories. These were the anibaddhaand
the nibaddha sangeeta. The first may be called the open
or free form and the second as the closed or bound form.
Anibaddha
sangeeta is one which is
not restricted by meaningful words and tala. It is a free
improvisation. The finest form is the alap.
Of the nibaddha variety,
there are many. The earliest about which some knowledge is available is
the prabandha giti. Indeed,prabandha is
often used as a generic term to indicate any nibaddha song
or musical composition. We have little evidence of these closed forms, except
that they were set to definite ragas and talas.
Of all known prabandhas those of Jayadeva are
the best known. This poet lived in Bengal in the 12th century and composed
his Gita Govinda, a Sanskrit work with songs and verses. The
songs are ashtapadis: that is, each song has eight couplets.
Today, the songs have spread throughout the country and each region has its own
style. As a matter of fact, singers have taken the liberty of giving the prabandhas their
own tunes. In the face of this, it is impossible to determine the original
tunes of the ashtapadis.
The popularity of Jayadeva's Gita Govinda is
due to many reasons. The first, naturally is the intrinsic poetic beauty of the
work almost unequalled. It also lent itself to dance and any conceivable style
of music. Again, it was in Sanskrit, thus transcending many linguistic
barriers. Besides all this, the greatest significant force sustaining it
is bhakti.
Bhakti or adoration is as old as man. It really is a state of mind beseeching
the Lord.
While the Godhead
takes on many forms to the bhakta, as Shiva or as Parabrahma
- the Bhagavata, as the story of the ten avatarasof Sri
Vishnu, has captured the Indian mind. Round this were woven songs and hymns,
preachings and psalms of these two travelled in waves to North India to give us
singer saints like Jayadeva ,Chaitanya, Sankardeva, Kabir, Tulsi, Meera,
Tukaram, Eknath, Narsi and Nanak. This bhakti movement engulfed all religions
and classes including the sufis. It has given us numerous devotional forms such
asabhangas, kirtans, bhajans, baul songs.
The next great formal
aspect in Nibaddha Sangeet is met within the Dhrupad.
It is believed to have been a further elaboration of theprabandha structure.
While it might have had an impetus for popularity even by the 14th century, it
finds a blossoming period from 15th century onwards to about the 18th century.
During these centuries we meet the most respected and renowned singers and
patrons of this form. There was Man Singh Tomar, the Maharaja of Gwalior. It
was he who was mainly responsible for the enormous vogue of dhrupad. There were
Baiju, Bakshu and others. Swami Haridasa a hermit of Brindavan was not only
a dhrupadiya, but one of the most central figures in
the Bhakti cult in the Northern areas of India. By tradition he was the guru of
Tansen, one of the best known dhrupad singers and one of the nine jewels of
Emperor Akbar's court.
In structure dhrupad
has two parts, the anibaddha section and the
sanchari dhrupad proper. The first is free alap. The
dhrupad proper is a song in four parts: the asthayee,
the antara, the Sanchari and
the abhoga.
The essential quality
of the dhrupadic approach is its sombre atmosphere and emphasis on rhythm.
There were four
schools or vanis of singing the dhrupad. The Gauhar vani
developed the raga or unadorned melodic figures. The
Dagarvani emphasized melodic curves and graces. The Khandar
vani specialised in quick ornamentation of the notes. Nauhar vani was
known for its broad musical leaps and jumps. These vanis 'are now indistinguishable.
The dhrupad is
even now highly respected and can be heard on the concert platform but more
often in temples of North India. Thedhrupad has somewhat
receded to the background and is not so popular with the masses. The Been and
Pakhawaj which were closely associated with the dhrupad also do not find much
patronage these days
Today the pride of place in classical
Hindustani Music is occupied by the Khyal. We are really not sure about the
beginning of the Khyal. The word is alien and means 'imagination'. And as you
will find when you hear it is more lyrical than the dhrupad. But
whether the musical form itself is foreign. is a matter of doubt. Some scholars
are of the opinion that in fact, it has its roots in the ancient Indian
roopaka alaps.
It is also said that Amir Khusrou of the 13th century gave it an impetus.
Sultan Mohammed Sharkhi of the 15th century is credited with encouraging this
form. However, it attained its maturity at the hands of Niyamat Khan Sadarang
and Adarang of the 18th century.
As sung today, the
khyal has two varieties: the slow or vilambit khyal and
the fast or drut khyal. In form both are similar, they
have two sections - the asthayee and the antara.
The vilambit is sung in slow tempo and the drut at a
faster speed. In technique. the exposition is less grave than the dhrupad.
There are more delicate gamkas and ornamentations.
Both types of khyals have
two sections. The asthayee and the antara.
The asthayee mostly confines itself to the low and
middle octaves. The antara generally moves in the
middle and upper octaves. Together asthayee and antara make
one song, a composition, or bandish, 'cheez' as it is
called. As a total work it reveals the essence of the raga in which it is set.
Comparable to
the vanis of the dhrupads, we
have gharanas, in the khyal. These are
schools of singing founded or developed by various individuals or patrons such
as kings or noblemen.
The oldest of these is
the Gwalior gharana. The father of this school was one
Nathan Peerbaksh, who settled down in Gwalior, and hence the name. He had two
grandsons Haddu Khan and Hassu Khan who lived in the 19th century and were
regarded as great masters of this style. The qualities of this gharana are
an open voice clear enunciation of words, a comprehensive attention to raga.
svara andtala. Some of the prominent musicians
of this gharana are Krishna Rao Shankar Pandit, Raja
Bhaiya Poonchwale etc.
The Agra Gharana is
said to have been founded by one Khuda Baksh of Agra. He had studied with
Nathan Peerbaksh of Gwalior, but developed his own style. Here again the voice
is open and clear, a speciality of this gharana is
its bol taan: that is, a fast or mediumlayakari passage
using the bols or words of the song. The song itself is rendered in medium
tempo. Of the most well known musicians of this gharana in recent times are
Vilayat Hussain Khan and Fayyaz Khan.
The Jaipur Atroli gharana is
said to take off directly from dhrupad.
It is associated with Alladiya Khan of the 19th-20th century. The khyal is
always in medium speed. The words are pronounced clearly and in an open and
clear voice. The distinguishing characters are the passages which are primarily
based on alankars - that is. repetitive melodic motifs - and an almost
metronomic insistence of tala division.
Some of the prominent musicians of recent times are Mallikarjun Mansur, Kishori
Amonkar etc.
Finally we come to the Rampur Saheswan gharana.
Since the earlier singers came from Rampur in Uttar Pradesh, this school has
come to be called so. The slow and fast Khayals usually are followed by
a Tarana.
The style is very lyrical and full of finer tonal embroidery. Nisar Hussain
Khan, Rashid Khan are the two prominent musicians of recent times belonging to
this gharana.
Thumri and Tappa are
popular types heard in concerts. The thumri is
very lyrical in its structure and presentation. These forms are termed as
'semi' or 'light' classical. Thumri is a love song and hence the textual beauty
is very important. This is closely coordinated with the musical rendition. And
keeping in mind its mood a thumri is
usually set to ragas like
Khamaj, Kaphi, Bhairavi and so on and the musical grammar is not strictly
adered to. There are two styles of thumri singing: the Poorab or Banaras which
is fairly slow and staid and the Punjab style which is more mercurial. Rasoolan
Devi, Siddheshwari Devi are prominent musicians of this style.
The Tappa consists of the song
uttered in fast note patterns. It is a difficult composition and needs much
practice. Both the Thumriand Tappa require
special training as do the Dhrupad and Khyal forms
of singing. Ragas in
which Tappa compositions
are set remain same as in Thumri style.
Pt. L.K. Pandit, Malini Rajurkar are names who specialize this form of singing.
2. Classical
Carnatic Music
The history of the system of music
that prevailed in India from ancient times, goes back to the Vedas. The Indian
musical system shows to what heights the genius of man could soar in quest of
new forms of musical expression. Apart from its entertainment value, music was
cherished and practised for its quality of lifting mankind to a nobler plane,
enabling the soul to attain eternal bliss. The perfect tone system and the
extensive raga and tala systems of Indian music, make it comparable with any
other sophisticated musical system of the world.
The earliest treatise we have on
music is the Natya Sastra of Bharata. Other treatises on music after Bharata,
such as the Brihaddesi of Matanga, Sangeeta Ratnakara of Sharangadeva, Sangeet
Sudhakara of Haripala, Swaramelakalanidhi of Ramamatya, etc., provide us a fund
of information about the different aspects of music and its development during
the different periods.
The ancient Tamils of South India
had also developed an highly evolved system of music with its solfa methods,
concordant and discordant notes, scales and modes, etc. A number of instruments
were also used to accompany song and dance. The Tamil classic of the 2nd
century A.D. titled the Silappadhikaram contains a vivid description of the
music of that period. The Tolkappiyam, Kalladam and the contributions of the
Saivite and Vaishnavite saints of the 7th and 8th centuries A.D. also serve as
resource material for studying musical history.
The course of the evolution of Indian music saw the emergence
of two different sub systems as Hindustani and Carnatic music. In Haripala's
"Sangeeta Sudhakara", written in the 14th century A.D., the terms
Carnatic and Hindustani are found for the first time. The two distinct styles,
Hindustani and Carnatic came into vogue after the advent of the Muslims,
particularly during the reign of the Mughal Emperors of Delhi. Both the systems
of music received their nourishment from the same original source. Whereas the
Indian music of the Northern part of India assimilated some features of the
music of the Persian and Arabic musicians who adorned the courts of the Mughal
rulers of Delhi, the music of the South continued to develop along its own
original lines. But the fundamental aspects of both the systems of the North
and South have been the same.
It is said, that South Indian Music, as known today,
flourished in Deogiri the capital city of the Yadavas in the middle ages, and
that after the invasion and plunder of the city by the Muslims, the entire
cultural life of the city took shelter in the Carnatic Empire of Vijayanagar
under the reign of Krishnadevaraya. Thereafter, the music of South India came
to be known as Carnatic Music.
The advent of Purandaradasa, in the year 1484, marked a very
important landmark in the development of Carnatic music. He effected such a
thorough systematisation and refinement in the art, that, up to the present
day, it has remained the same. He has been justly termed as "Carnatic
Sangeeta Pitamaha". He was not merely a composer but a Lakshanakara of the
highest calibre. The system of South Indian Music, as we have it now, is
entirely his gift to posterity. He introduced the Malavagowla scale as the
basic scale for music instruction. He also framed graded exercises, forming
part of the series of lessons to beginners of music. This system prevails even
today in the teaching of music. The Svaravalis, Janta varisas, the Suladi Sapta
tala alankaras and gitams, composed by Purandaradasa, form the basis for
mastery in the art. Among the compositional types, he has to his credit
numerous lakshya gitams and lakshna gitams, tana varnams, tillanas, suladis,
ugabhogas, vritta namas and kirtanas. His kirtanas are popularly referred to as
Dasara Padas or Devarnamas
Moving into the 17th century, the history of Carnatic music
saw the epoch-making scheme of the 72 Melakartas, introduced by Venkatamakhi
and laid down in his monumental work Chaturdandi Prakasika in the year 1620
A.D. The Melakarta scheme is a highly comprehensive and systematic formula
which includes within its fold all the modes used in ancient as well as modern
systems of music of the different parts of the world. The scheme opened out new
vistas of raga creation and later composers like Tyagaraja invented many a
beautiful raga by following it.
In the field of practical music, South India had a succession of brilliant and prolific composers who enriched the art with thousands of compositions. After Purandaradasa, Tallapakam Annamacharya Narayana Tirtha, Bhadra-chalam Ramdasa and Kshetranja made contributions to the wealth of compositions
In the field of practical music, South India had a succession of brilliant and prolific composers who enriched the art with thousands of compositions. After Purandaradasa, Tallapakam Annamacharya Narayana Tirtha, Bhadra-chalam Ramdasa and Kshetranja made contributions to the wealth of compositions
The birth of the Musical Trinity - Tyagaraja, Muthuswami
Dikshitar and Syama Sastri - at Tiruvarur between the years 1750 to 1850 A.D.
ushered in an era of dynamic development in Carnatic music. The Trinity were
not only contemporaries among themselves but, also contemporaries of great
composers of Western Music, as Beethoven, Mozart, Wagner and Haydn. It was the
'Golden Age' of music throughout the world. Carnatic music reached its pinnacle
of artistic excellence during this period.
A galaxy of composers in the post-Trinity period kept the
banner of Carnatic music flying high. Vina Kuppayyar, Patnam Subrahmanya Iyer,
Ramnad Srinivasa Iyengar, Mysore Sadasiva Rao, Mysore Vasudevathar and
Papanasam Sivan are only a few names to be mentioned here.
The Sangeeta Sampradaya Pradarsini, written by
Subbarama Dikshithar in the year 1904, serves as an authority for information
regarding the music, musicians and composers of the previous centuries.
Many of the musicians and composers of the South were closely
acquainted with the Hindustani system of music also and wherever permissible,
adopted Hindustani ragas for their compositions. The ragas Yaman Kalyan, Hamir
Kalyan, Malkaunsa, Brindavani Sarang, Jaijaivanti, etc. were adopted in their
compositions by the Musical Trinity. Raga Kaphi, Kanada, Khamaj, Paraj, Purvi,
Bhairav, etc. bear a very close resemblance to their counterparts in the
Hindustani system of music.
There are musical forms belonging to Nibadha and Anibadha
Sangeeta, that is, Kalpita sangeeta and Manodharma sangeeta or improvised
music. All these forms are generally classified under different heads, as sacred
music, Art music, etc. The several forms under these heads possess distinctive
characteristics of their own. The ancient musical forms like Prabandhas, etc.
gradually gave away to the different musicals forms that are in use in present
day music, though the basic elements of the ancient Prabandhas are still
retained in the modern forms. The following musical forms offer interesting
study:
GITAM
Gitam is the simplest type of
composition. Taught to beginners of music, the gitam is very simple in
construction, with an easy and melodious flow of music. The music of this form
is a simple melodic extension of the raga in which it is composed. The tempo is
uniform. It has no sections dividing one part of the song from the other. It is
sung without repetition from the beginning to the end. There are no intricate
variations in the music. The theme of the song is usually devotional, though
there are a few gitas in praise of musical luminaries and Acharyas. A notable
feature of the gitam is the existence of gitalankara phrases like a iya, a
iyam, va iya, etc., called matrika padas, reminiscent of similar syllables
occuring in Sama gana. Gitas have been composed in Sanskrit, Kannada and
Bhandira bhasha. Purandaradasa's introductory gitas in praise of Ganesha,
Maheswara and Vishnu, collectively referred to as Pillari gitas, form the very
first set of gitas taught to the students of music. As distinguished from the
type of gitas described above, known as Lakshya gitas or Samanya gitas, which,
as the name itself suggests, describe the Lakshanas of the raga in which they
are composed. Paidala Gurumurti Sastry was a prolific composer of gitas after
Purandaradasa. Venkatamakhi too has composed many Lakshana gitas.
SULADI
Very much like the gitam in musical
structure and arrangement, the Suladis are of a higher standard than the gitam.
The Suladi is a talamalika, the sections being in different talas. The sahitya
syllables are fewer than in the gitas and there is a profusion of vowel
extensions. The theme is devotional. Suladis are composed in different tempos
vilambita, madhya and druta. Purandaradasa has composed many Suladis.
SVARAJATI
This is learnt after a course in
gitams. More complicated than the gitas, the Svarajati paves the way for the
learning of the Varnams. It consists of three sections, called Pallavi,
Anupallavi and Charanam. The theme is either devotional, heroic or amorous. It
originated as a dance form with jatis (tala, solfa syllables like taka tari
kita naka tatin gina tam) tagged on. But later, Syama Sastri, one among the
Musical Trinity, composed svarajatis without jatis, which are brilliant concert
pieces, noted for their musical value.
JATISVARAM
Very similar to the svarajati in
musical structure, this form- Jatisvaram-has no sahitya or words. The piece is
sung with solfa syllables only. It is noted for its rhythmical excellence and
the jati pattern used in it. This is a musical form belonging to the realm of
dance music. In some Jatisvarams, the Pallavi and Anupallavi are sung to jatis
and the Charanas are sung to a mixture of svaras and jatis. There are also
Ragamalika Jatisvarams.
VARNAM
The Varnam is a musical form in
Carnatic Music. Whereas musical forms like the Kirtana, Kriti, Javali, Tillana,
etc. have their similar counterparts in Hindustani Music, the Varnam does not
find a counterpart. The Varnam is a beautiful creation of musical craftsmanship
of a high order, combining in itself all the characteristic features of the
raga in which it is composed. This form is aptly called a Varnam, since many of
the svara group patterns called 'Varnas' in ancient music, are dexterously
interwoven in its texture. Practice in Varnam singing helps a musician to
attain mastery in presentation and command over raga, tala and bhava. The
vocalist gets a good training for the voice and the instrumentalist a good
mastery over technique. Very few words and profusion of vowels mark the sahitya
of this form. The theme of the piece is either bhakti (devotion) or sringara
(love).
There are two types of varnams, one
called the Tana Varnam and the other called the Pada Varnam. While the former
is a musical/concert form, the latter is purely a dance form. There are two
angas or sections in a varnam, known as the Purvanga constituting the pallavi,
anupallavi and the muktayi svaras, and the Uttaranga or the Ettukadai,
comprising the charanam and the charana svaras. The pada varnam has sahityarn
or words for all the angas unlike the tana varnam which has sahityam only for
the pallavi, anupallavi and charanam.
Varnams have been composed in all
the major ragas and most of the minor ragas, in all the principal talas.
Pachchimiriyam Adiyappayya, Sonti Venkatsubbayya, Syama Sastri, Swati Tirunal,
Patnam Subrahmanya Iyer, Ramnad Srinivasa Iyengar and Mysore Vasudevachar were
prominent composers of Varnams.
KIRTANAM
The Kirtanam had its birth about the
latter half of the 14th century. It is valued for the devotional content of the
sahitya. Clothed in simple music, the kirtanam abounds in Bhakti bhava. It is
suited for congregational singing as well as individual presentation. The
Talapakam composers of the 15th century were the first to compose kirtanas with
the sections, pallavi, anupallavi and charanas. Usually there are more than two
charanas the music of all of them being the same. Composed in all the important
traditional ragas and set to simple talas, the kirtanas offer soul-stirring
music of the highest form of devotion. Bhadrachalam Ramadasa and Tyagaraja were
prolific composers of Kirtanams.
KRITI
The Kriti is a development from the
Kirtana. It is an highly evolved musical form. The highest limit of aesthetic
excellence is reached in the Kriti composition. The raga bhava is brought out
in all the rich and varied colours in this form. It was only after the
emergence of the kriti as a musical form, that a definite style in musical
compositions became a possibility. The pallavi, anupallavi and charanam are the
minimum and essential angas of a kriti. The pallavi is sung first, followed by
the anupallavi and ends with the pallavi. The charanam is sung next and linked
with the pallavi before ending. The Carnatic music world owes its debt of
gratitude to the Musical trinity for having made such a monumental contribution
in the field of nibaddha sangeeta, in the form of kritis. There are kritis in
all the existing ragas and in all the principal talas. The kriti as a musical
form has many features in common with the Dhrupad of Hindustani music.
Muthuswamy Dikshitar has composed many kritis in the Dhrupad style.
Besides the essential angas, many
decorative angas are also appended to kritis for embellishment. They are (a)
Chittasvaras or a set of solfa passages, sung at the end of the anupallavi and
charanam, (b) Svara-sahitya - an appropriate sahitya is supplied for the
chittasvara, (c) Madhyamakala sahitya - an integral part of the kriti, (d)
Solkattu svara - resembling the chittasvara, this has jatis along with svaras,
(e) Sangati - variations on a musical theme, developed step by step, (f) Gamaka
- the dhatu is flooded with gamakas, (g) Svarakshara dhatu matu alankara, where
the svara and the sahitya are identical, (h) Manu-pravala beauty - words of two
or three languages figure in the sahitya of a kriti, (i) Prosodical beauties
like Prasa, Anuprasa, Yati and Yamaka also figure mainly in many of the Kritis
PADA
Padas are scholarly compositions in
Telegu and Tamil. Though they are composed mainly as dance forms, they are also
sung in concerts, on account of their musical excellence and aesthetic appeal.
A padam also has the sections, pallavi, anupallavi and charana. The music is
slow-moving and dignified. There is a natural flow of music and, sustained
balance between the words and the music is maintained throughout. The theme is
madhura bhakti, portrayed as bahir sringara and antar bhakti. The characters
nayaka, nayika and sakhi represent respectively the Lord (Paramatma), the
Devotees (jeevatma) and the Guru, who leads the devotee on to the path of mukti
(liberation) by his sage counsel. Various rasas are depicted in all their
delicate shades, through suitable ragas which reflect such rasas. All the nava
rasas are portrayed in padas, though sringara is the main theme.
The pada, when sung, presents an epitome of the raga in which it is composed. Ragas specially noted for evoking typical rasa bhavas, such as Anandabhairavi, Sahana, Nilambari, Ahiri, Ghanta, Mukhari, Huseni, Surati, Sourashtram and Punnagavarali, to mention only a few are specially chosen for padas. Kshetrajana is the most prolific composer of padas.
JAVALI
A javali is a composition belonging
to the sphere of light classical music. Sung both in concert programmes and
dance concerts, the javalis are popular because of the attractive melodies in
which they are composed. In contrast to the padas which portray divine love,
javalis are songs which are sensuous in concept and spirit. They are generally
set in madhyama kala. In these forms also, the nayaka, nayika and sakhi figure
is the theme, but, there is no dual interpretation of the sahitya. The catchy
and lilting tunes of the javalis enhance their appeal. Desya ragas like Paraj,
Kaphi, Behag, Jhinjhoti, Tilang, etc. have also been used in these
compositions. Javalis are composed in Telugu, Kannada and Tamil. This form
resembles the Thumris of Hindustani Music.
TILLANA
The Tillana, corresponding to the
Tarana of Hindustani music, is a short and crisp form. It is mainly a dance
form, but on account of its brisk and attractive music, it sometimes finds a
place in music concerts as a conclusion piece. It usually begins with jatis.
The name Tillana is constituted of
the rhythmic syllables, ti la na. It is the liveliest of musical forms. This
form is said to have had its birth in the 18th century. The sahitya of a
tillana may be in Sanskrit, Telugu or Tamil. The presence of rhythmical solfa
syllables alongwith a sprinkling of sahitya enhance the beauty of the form of
the Tillana. The music is of comparatively slow tempo in Tillanas meant for dance
purposes. The pallavi and anupallavi consists of jatis and the charana has
sahitya, jatis and svaras. Ramnad Srinivasa Iyengar, Pallavi Seshayyar and
Swati Tirunal are some of the prominent composers of Tillanas.
PALLAVI
This is the most important branch of
creative music. It is in this branch of manodharma sangeeta, that the musician
has ample opportunities of displaying his or her creative talents, imaginative
skill, and musical intelligence. The term Pallavi is coined from the initial
syllables of the three words: Padam, meaning words; Layam, meaning time and
Vinyasam, meaning variations. The words chosen for a Pallavi may be either in
Sanskrit, Telugu or Tamil and may be on any theme, though the devotional is
always preferred. Neither the sahitya nor the music is precomposed. The singer
has the choice to choose the sahitya, the raga and the tala. The two parts
Prathamangam and Dvityangam are divided by the period of a short pause, called
Padagarbham. The sahityam is repeated again and again, as the musical
variations develop and proceed in stages of increasing complexity. The Khyal of
Hindustani music has very much in common with the Pallavi of Carnatic music.
Kalpana svaras are sung to the Pallavi after the different stages of
development, including the Sangatis, Anuloma and Pratiloma (singing the theme
in double and quadruple speeds and vice-versa) are sung. Sometimes the kalpana
svaras are sung in different ragas to present a Ragamalika Pallavi.
'Niraval ' literally means filling
up by adjustments. In musical parlance, it refers to the art of singing the
sahitya within the rhythmical setting, with improvisations in the musical
theme. A suitable line of the sahitya from a kriti is chosen and musical
improvisation is done within each cycle of the tala. Niraval is a must in
Pallavis and an option in Kritis.
TANAM
This is a branch of raga alapana. It
is raga alapana in Madhyamakala or medium speed. There is perceptible rhythm in
this. The rhythmical flow of music, flowing in fascinating patterns, makes tanam
singing the most captivating part of raga exposition. The word 'Anantam ' is
dexterously used to merge with the musical patterns.
To sum up; the outstanding feature
of Carnatic music is its raga system, in the concept of which, the ideal or
'absolute music' is reached, and the highly developed and intricate tala
system, which has made it extremely scientific and systematic and unique in all
respects. Though clear cut demarcations in the style of musical presentation,
similar to the gharanas of Hindustani music are not seen in Carnatic music,
yet, we do come across different styles in rendering compositions.
3. Regional
Music:
Cultural
traditions from various regions of the country reflect the rich diversity of
Regional Music of India. Each region has its own particular style.
Tribal
and folk music is not taught in the same way that Indian classical music is
taught. There is no formal period of apprenticeship where the student is
able to devote their entire life to learning the music, the economics of rural
life does not permit this sort of thing. The musical practitioners must
still attend to their normal duties of hunting, agriculture or whatever their
chosen profession is.
Music
in the villages is learnt from childhood, the music is heard and imbibed along
with numerous public activities that allow the villagers to practice and hone
their skills.
The
music is an indispensable component of functions such as weddings, engagements,
and births. There is a plethora of songs for such occasions. There
are also many songs associated with planting and harvesting. In these
activities the villagers routinely sing of their hopes, fears and aspirations.
Musical
instruments are often different from those found in classical music.
Although instruments like the tabla may sometimes be found it is more likely
that cruder drums such as daf, dholak, or nal are used. The sitar and sarod which are so common in the classical genre
are absent in the folk music. One often finds instruments such as the ektar, dotar, rabab, and santur.
Quite often they are not called by these names, but may be named according to
their local dialect. There are also instruments which are used only in
particular folk styles in particular regions. These instruments are
innumerable.
The
instruments of classical music are crafted by artisans whose only job is the
fabrication of musical instruments.
In contrast the folk instruments are commonly crafted by the musicians
themselves.
It is
very common to find folk instruments that have been fabricated of commonly
available materials. Skin, bamboo, coconut shells, and pots are but a few
commonly available materials used to make musical instruments.
Rasiya
Geet, Uttar Pradesh
The
rich tradition of singing Rasiya Geet flourished in Braj which is the sacred
land of Lord Krishna’s charming leelas from time immemorial. This is not
confined to any particular festival, but is closely woven into the very fabric
of daily life and day to day chores of its people. ‘Rasiya’ word is derived
from the word rasa (emotion) because rasiya means that which is filled with rasa or emotion. It reflects the
personality of the singer as well as the nature of the song.
Pankhida,
Rajasthan
Sung by
the peasants of Rajasthan while doing work in the fields, the peasants sing and
speak while playing algoza and manjira. The literal
meaning of the word ‘Pankhida’ is lover.
Lotia,
Rajasthan
‘Lotia’
is sung in the chaitra month during the festival - ‘Lotia’.
Women bring lotas (a vessel to fill water) and kalash (a vessel considered to be auspicious
to fill water during worship) filled with water from ponds and wells. They
decorate them with flowers and come home.
Pandavani,
Chhattisgarh
In
Pandavani, tales from Mahabharata are sung as a ballad and one or two episodes
are chosen for the night’s performance. The main singer continuously sits
throughout the performance and with powerful singing and symbolic gestures he
assumes all the characters of the episode one after another.
Shakunakhar
- Mangalgeet, Kumaon
Numberless
songs are sung on auspicious occasions in the foothills of Himalaya.
Shakunakhar are sung during religious ceremonies of baby-shower, child-birth,
Chhati (a ritual done on the sixth day from the birth of a child) Ganesh pooja etc. These songs are sung by only
ladies, without any instrument.
Barhamasa,
Kumaon
This
regional music from Kumaon is describing the twelve months of an year, each
with its specific qualities. In one of the songs the Ghughuti bird symbolizes
the onset of chait month. A girl in her in laws place
asks this bird not to speak because she is disturbed with the memories of her
mother (Ija) and she is feeling sad.
Mando,
Goa
Goan
regional music is a treasury of the traditional music of the Indian
subcontinent. Mando, the finest creation of Goan song is a slow verse and
refrain composition dealing with love, tragedy and both social injustice and
political resistance during Portuguese presence in Goa.
Alha,
Uttar Pradesh
Alha,
typical ballad of Bundelkhand narrates the heroic deeds of Alha and Udal, the
two warrior brothers who served Raja Parmal of Majoba. This is the most popular
regional music of Bundelkhand which is popular elsewhere in the country as
well.
The
Alha is full of tales of feudal chivalry, which have appeal to common men. It
highlights the high principles of morality, chivalry and nobility prevalent in
those times.
Hori,
Uttar Pradesh
The
history of Hori, its evolution and tradition is quite ancient. It is based on
the love pranks of ‘Radha-Krishna’. Hori singing is basically associated with
the festival of Holi only. In India tradition of singing Hori during spring
season and while celebrating Holi has been continuing since ancient
times.
Sohar,
Uttar Pradesh
Social
ceremonies have, at times, served as a potent factor for intermingling of
different cultures. North India has a strong tradition of singing ‘Sohar’ songs
when a son is born in a family. This has influenced the muslim culture and a
form of ‘Sohar’ song gained currency in the muslim families living in some
regions of Uttar Pradesh. ‘Sohar’ songs unmistakably point to the mingling of
two cultures.
Chhakri,
Kashmir
Chhakri
is a group song which is the most popular form of Kashmir’s folk music.
It
is sung to the accompaniment of the noot (earthen pot) rababs,
sarangi and tumbaknari (an earthen pot with high neck).
Laman,
Himachal Pradesh
In
Laman a group of girls sing a stanza and a group of boys give reply in the
song. This continues for hours. Interesting is that the girls singing on one of
the peaks of the hill seldom see the faces of the boys singing on another peak.
In between is the hill which echoes their love song. Most of these songs are
sung especially in Kullu Valley.
Kajri, Uttar Pradesh
Kajri
is a folk song sung by women, from Uttar Pradesh and adjacent region, during
rainy season. On the third day in the second half of the bhadra,
women sing Kajri songs all through the night, while dancing in a semi-circle.
Qawwali
Originally,
Qawwalis were sung in praise of God. In India Qawwali was brought from Persia
around thirteenth century and Sufis enlisted its services to spread their
message. Amir Khusro (1254-1325) a Sufi and an innovator contributed to the
evolution of Qawwali. It is a mode of singing rather than a form of
composition. In performance Qawwali presents a fascinating, interchanging use
of the solo and choral modalities.
Tappa,
Punjab
Tappa
is a form of semi classical vocal music inspired by the folk songs of camel
riders in the Punjab area. Tappa, in Punjabi and Pashto language, is set in ragas generally used for the semi classical
forms. It is characterized by jumpy and flashy tonal movements with rhythmic
and rapid notes.
Powada,
Maharashtra
Powada
is the traditional folk art from Maharashtra. The word Powada itself means “the
narration of a story in glorious terms”. The narratives are always odes in
praise of an individual hero or an incident or place. The chief narrator is
known as the Shahir who plays the duff to keep the rhythm.The tempo is fast and
controlled by the main singer who is supported by others in chorus.
The
earliest notable Powada was the Afzal Khanacha Vadh (The Killing of Afzal Khan)
(1659) by Agnidas which recorded Shivaji’s encounter with Afzal Khan.
Teej
Songs, Rajasthan
Teej is
celebrated with great involvement by women of Rajasthan. This is a festival
celebrated on the third day after the new moon or amavasya ofshraavana month. The theme of the songs sung
during this festival revolve around the union of Shiva and Parvati, the magic
of monsoon, greenery, peacock dance etc.
Burrakatha,
Andhra Pradesh
Burrakatha
is a highly dramatic form of ballad. A bottle shaped drum (tambura) is
played by the main performer while reciting a story. The ballad singers, like
stage actor, wear make up and a highly stylised costume.
Bhakha,
Jammu and Kashmir
The
Bhakha form of folk music is popular in Jammu region. Bhakha is sung by the
villagers when harvesting is done. It is considered to be the regional music
with most melodic and harmonious elements. It is sung to the accompaniment of
instruments like harmonium.
Bhuta
song, Kerala
The
basis of Bhuta song is rooted in superstitions. Some communities of Kerala do
Bhuta rituals to send away the evil ghost and spirits. This ritual is
accompanied with vigorous dancing and the music has a piercing and eerie
character.
Daskathia,
Odisha
Daskathia
is a form of ballad singing prevalent in Odisha. Daskathia is a name derived
from a unique musical instrument called “Kathi” or “ Ram Tali”, wooden
clappers used during the presentation. The performance is a form of worship and
offering on behalf of the “Das”, the devotee.
Bihu
songs, Assam
Bihu
songs (bihu geet) are the most distinctive type of folk songs of Assam, both
for their literary content and for their musical mode. Bihu songs are blessings
for a happy new year and the dance is associated with an ancient fertility
cult. It is Bihu time when an opportunity is there for marriageable young men
and women to exchange their feelings and even to choose their partners.
Sana
Lamok, Manipur
Manipur’s hills and valley-both are fond of
music and dance. Sana Lamok is sung at the time of coronation ceremony by the
Maaiba (priest). It may also be sung to welcome the king. It is sung to evoke
the spirit of Pakhangba, the presiding deity. There is a belief that this song
is potent with magical powers.
Songs
of Lai Haraoba Festival, Manipur
The
meaning of Lai Haraoba is the festival of gods and goddesess. It is performed
for the Umang-Lai (forest deity). Ougri Hangen, song of creation and Heijing
Hirao a ritualistic song is sung on the last day of Lai Haraoba festival.
Saikuti
Zai (songs of Saikuti), Mizoram
Mizo
are traditionally known as a ‘singing tribe’. The regional folk songs of
Mizoram constitute the richest heritage of Mizos. Saikuti, a poetess of Mizoram
composed songs in praise of warriors, brave hunters, young men aspiring to be
great warriors and hunters etc.
Chai
hia (songs of the Chai Dance), Mizoram
As per
Mizo custom during the Chapchar Kut festival not only singing, dance should
also continue throughout the festival. Special occasion for singing and dancing
is called ‘chai’ and songs are known as ‘chai hia’ (chai songs).
Basanti/
Basant Geet, Garhwal
Basant
or spring season is welcomed in a unique manner in Garhwal. Land is filled with
different colourful flowers. On Basant Panchmi floor designs are made with the
rice flour and the green oats bundles are used to put impressions with cowdung.
Swings are tied on the trees and folk songs are sung.
Ghasiyari
Geet, Garhwal
Young
women of mountains have to go in far off forests to get grass for their cattle.
They go to the forest dancing and singing in groups. Along with entertainment
emphasis is laid on the importance of labour in the Ghasiyari Geet.
Sukar
ke Biah, Bhojpuri Song
Bhojpuri
songs portray a lively picture of common folk. They give expression to the
innermost feelings of simple hearts. Village folks have their own
interpretations of nature, planets and constellations. The story of Shukra and
Brihaspat is sung even today – how Shukra forgets the wedding ornament and
comes back to take it, where he finds his mother drinking rice water, which is
poor man’s food. On asking mother about this, his mother answers that she
dosen’t know whether Shukra’s would be wife will even give her rice water or
not. Shukra decides to remain unmarried.
Villu
Pattu, “Bow Song”, Tamil Nadu
Villu
Pattu is a popular folk music of Tamil Nadu. The lead singer also plays the
role of the main performer. He also handles the dominating instrument which is
bow shaped. The songs revolve around theological themes and the conquest of
good over evil is emphasized.
Ammanaivari,
Tamil Nadu
Ammanaivari
are songs sung in praise of Chola monarch. Ammanai is a wooden ball and the
women folk sing appropriate songs while playing the ball. This game of Ammanai
is still current in Tamil Nadu.
4. Musical Instruments
India is the inheritor of one of the most
ancient and evolved music systems in the world. The continuity of the musical
traditions of India is established through a study of musical texts and
numerous visual references one finds of musical instruments in painting and
sculpture from prehistoric times to the present day.
The earliest evidence of music activity is
found on the walls of cave paintings at Bhimbetka and in several parts of
Madhya Pradesh, which were occupied by man approximately 10,000 years ago. Much
later, in the excavations of the Harappan Civilization also, evidence is
available of dance and music activity.
Musical instruments are the tangible and
material representation of music which is an auditory art. A study of these helps
in tracing the evolution of music and also explains many aspects of the
material culture of the group of people to which these instruments belong. For
instance, the hair used for making the bow, the wood or clay used for making
the drum, or the hide of animals used in the instruments, all these tell us
about the flora and fauna of a particular region.
The Tamil word for instrument-Karuvi is found in Sangam literature of the 2nd to 6th century A.D., the literal meaning of which is "tool". This is extended to mean instrument in the context of music.
Very ancient instruments may be seen as an extension of the human body and we find even today, sticks and clappers. Dried fruit rattles, the Kaniyani Danda of Oraons or the dried berries or shells tied to the waist are used for producing rhythm, even today.
The hand was referred to as the Hasta Veena, where the hands and fingers are used to show the notation system of vedic chanting, coordinating sound with mudra-hand gesture.
In the Natya Shastra, compiled by Bharat Muni dated 200 B.C.-200 A.D., musical instruments have been divided into four main categories on the basis of how sound is produced.
1. The Tata Vadya or Chordophones- Stringed instruments
The Tamil word for instrument-Karuvi is found in Sangam literature of the 2nd to 6th century A.D., the literal meaning of which is "tool". This is extended to mean instrument in the context of music.
Very ancient instruments may be seen as an extension of the human body and we find even today, sticks and clappers. Dried fruit rattles, the Kaniyani Danda of Oraons or the dried berries or shells tied to the waist are used for producing rhythm, even today.
The hand was referred to as the Hasta Veena, where the hands and fingers are used to show the notation system of vedic chanting, coordinating sound with mudra-hand gesture.
In the Natya Shastra, compiled by Bharat Muni dated 200 B.C.-200 A.D., musical instruments have been divided into four main categories on the basis of how sound is produced.
1. The Tata Vadya or Chordophones- Stringed instruments
2. The Sushira Vadya or Aerophones- Wind instruments
3. The Avanaddha Vadya or Membranophones- Percussion instruments
4. The Ghana Vadya or Idiophones- Solid instruments which do not require
tuning.
Tata Vadya - Stringed Instruments
The tata vadya is a
category of instruments in which sound is produced by the vibration of a string
or chord. These vibrations are caused by plucking or by bowing on the string
which has been pulled taut. The length of the vibrating string or wire, the
degree to which it has been tightened, determines the pitch of the note and
also to some extent the duration of the sound.
The tata vadya are
divided into two broad categories-the plucked and the bowed, and further
subdivided into the fretted and non-fretted variety.
The oldest evidence of
stringed instruments in our land, however, are harps in the shape of the
hunters bow. They had a varying number of parallel strings made of fibre or
gut. There used to be one string for each note, plucked either with the fingers
or with the plectrum called the kona. Veena was the generic term for stringed
instruments referred to in texts: and we have the ekatantri, the sata-tantri
veena, etc. The Chitra had seven strings and the Vipanchi nine; the first was
played with the fingers and the second with a plectrum.
Representation of
these can be found in many sculptures and murals of olden days, as for example,
in the Bharhut and Sanchi Stupa, the reliefs of Amaravati and so on. Mention
of. Yazh are found in old Tamil texts from the 2nd century A.D. The playing of
such instruments was an important part of ritual and ceremonies. As the priests
and performers sang, their wives played on instruments.
Another class is of
the dulcimer type, where a number of strings are stretched on a box of wood.
The best known of these was the sata-tantri veena-the hundred stringed veena. A
close relative of this is the Santoor, a very popular instrument still played
in Kashmir and other parts of India.
A later development of stringed instruments are the fingerboard variety, which were most suited to Raga Sangeet and many of the prevalent instruments of the concert platform, whether fretted or non-fretted, bowed or plucked fall into this category. The great advantage of these instruments is the richness of tone production and continuity of sound. In the finger-board instruments all the required notes are produced on one chord (string or wire) by altering the length of the wire either by pressing it with a finger or a piece of metal or wood. This increase or decrease in the length of the vibrator wire is responsible for the changes in pitches of notes-swaras.
A later development of stringed instruments are the fingerboard variety, which were most suited to Raga Sangeet and many of the prevalent instruments of the concert platform, whether fretted or non-fretted, bowed or plucked fall into this category. The great advantage of these instruments is the richness of tone production and continuity of sound. In the finger-board instruments all the required notes are produced on one chord (string or wire) by altering the length of the wire either by pressing it with a finger or a piece of metal or wood. This increase or decrease in the length of the vibrator wire is responsible for the changes in pitches of notes-swaras.
Bowed instruments are
usually used as an accompaniment to vocal music and are referred to as
Geetanuga. They are divided into two broad categories-the upright and the
inverted. In the first category the fingerboard is held straight up as in the
case of Sarangi and in the second category, that is, in the inverted variety,
the board or resonator is held towards the shoulder and the fingerboard dandi
is held across the arm of the player as in the case of the Ravanhastaveena, the
Banam, the Violin
Kamaicha
The Kamaicha is a
bowed lute played by the manganiars of west Rajasthan. The whole instrument is
one piece of wood, the spherical bowl extending into a neck and fingerboard;
the resonator is covered with leather and the upper portion with wood. There
are four main strings and a number of subsidiary ones passing over a thin
bridge.
The kamaicha links the
sub-continent to Western Asia and Africa and is considered by some scholars to
be the oldest instrument, with the exception of the Ravana Hatta or Ravana
Hasta Veena.
The variety of upright bowed instruments are generally seen in the northern areas of ttie country. In these there are again two varieties, the fretted and the non-fretted.
The variety of upright bowed instruments are generally seen in the northern areas of ttie country. In these there are again two varieties, the fretted and the non-fretted.
(a) Different parts of
a stringed instrument
The resonator- Toomba
of most stringed instruments is either made of wood or from a specially grown
gourd.
Over this Toomba there
is a plate of wood known as the Tabli. The resonator is attached to the
fingerboard-the Danda at the top end of which are inserted the pegs-the
Khoontis, for tuning the instrument.
On the Tabli there is
a bridge made of ivory or bone. The main strings pass over the bridge, some
instruments also have a number of sympathetic strings below the main strings.
They are called the Tarab. When these strings vibrate, they add resonance to
the sound.
On the fingerboard of
danda, in some instruments, metal frets are attached which are either
permanently fixed or are movable. Some stringed instruments are plucked with
the fingers or by using a small plectrum called the Kona, while in others,
sound is produced by bowing, (See diagram A)
(b) Placement of
Swaras
The line drawing shows
placement of notes-the swaras-Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa on a 36" length of
wire, the frequency of vibration of each note is also shown in the picture.
(See diagram B).
Sushira Vadya
In the Sushira Vadya
group, sound is produced by blowing air into an hollow column. The pitch of the
note is determined by controlling the air passage and the melody is played by
using the fingers to open and close the in the instrument. The simplest of
these instruments is the flute. Generally flutes are made of bamboo or wood and
the Indian musician prefers these due to the tonal and musical attributes of
these materials. However, there are references of flutes made of red
sandalwood, black wood, cane, ivory, bronze, silver and gold also.
The diameter of the
bamboo flutes is usually - about 1.9 cms; though, flutes with wider diameters.
are also commonly, used. The musical text Sangeet Ratnakar written in the 13th.
century by Sharangdev refers to 18 kinds of flutes. These categories are based
on the distance between the blow hole and the first finger hole (see diagram).
Excavations of the
Indus civilizations have shown bird whistles of clay, and seals which show wind
and percussion instruments. Actual musical instruments are made of bamboo,
wood, animal hide, etc. which perish when buried for any length of time, hence,
flutes made of wood or bamboo have not survived the ravages of time and are not
found in excavations of past civilizations.
There is reference in
the Vedas to an instrument-the Venu which was used as an accompaniment to
chanting and recitation. There is also mention of a kind of a flute called the
Nadi. The flute has a variety of names like Venu, Vamsi, Bansuri, Murali and so
on in the north, and Pullankuzhal, Pillankarovi and Kolalu in the south. The
wind instruments are roughly divided into two categories on the basis of how
sound is produced. They are:
- the flutes, and the reed instruments
- the flutes, and the reed instruments
Flutes
Single or double flutes with only one hollow tube with finger holes for controlling the pitch of the note are very common in many parts of the country. Long horizontal flutes with a larger diameter are used to play slow passages such as Alap of the lower registers. Smaller and shorter flutes, sometimes held vertically, are used for Taans, the faster passages, and also for producing higher pitches of sound. The double flutes are mostly played by musicians of the tribal and rural areas and are rarely found on the concert platform. They resemble beak flutes which have a narrow aperture at one end. One finds references to these types of instruments in the sculptures of the first century in the Sanchi Stupa which shows a musician playing on a double flute.
Single or double flutes with only one hollow tube with finger holes for controlling the pitch of the note are very common in many parts of the country. Long horizontal flutes with a larger diameter are used to play slow passages such as Alap of the lower registers. Smaller and shorter flutes, sometimes held vertically, are used for Taans, the faster passages, and also for producing higher pitches of sound. The double flutes are mostly played by musicians of the tribal and rural areas and are rarely found on the concert platform. They resemble beak flutes which have a narrow aperture at one end. One finds references to these types of instruments in the sculptures of the first century in the Sanchi Stupa which shows a musician playing on a double flute.
Reed instruments
Reed instruments like
the Shehnai, Nadaswaram, etc., have one or two reeds inserted in the hollow
beak or tube of the instrument, these vibrate when air is blown into them. In
this type of instrument the reeds are bound together with a gap between them
before inserting into the body of the instrument. The body of the tube is
conical in shape narrow at the blowing end and opening out gradually with a
metallic bell at the farther end to enhance the volume of the sound. A set of
spare reeds, an ivory or silver needle for adjusting and cleaning the reeds are
also hung from the mouth piece of the instrument.
The Shehnai is a reed instrument in which there
are seven holes along the tube which are used for playing the melody by opening
and closing them with the fingers. It is known as a Mangal vadya and is usually
played on all auspicious occasions in north India such as marriages, temple
festivals, etc. The Shehnai is considered to have come to India from West Asia,
there are other scholars who believe that this instrument travelled to China
from India. It is now a popular instrument in concerts, the sound is very sweet
and suited for playing Raga Sangeet. In the early fifties of this century,
Ustad Bismillah Khan is credited for popularising this instrument. Today, Pt.
Anant Lal, Pt. Daya Shankar are also noted Shehnai players.
Avanaddha Vadya
In the Avanaddha Vadya
category of instruments, sound is produced by striking the animal skin which
has been stretched across an earthern or metal pot or a wooden barrel or frame.
The earliest references to such instruments have been found in the Vedas where
there is mention of Bhumi Dundhubhi; this was a hollow pit dug in the ground
and covered with the hide of a buffalo or ox which was stretched across the
pit. The tail of the animal was used for striking the animal hide and thus
sound was produced.
Drums have been
divided into different categories on the basis of their shapes and structure as
also the position and placement for playing. The main categories are-Oordhwaka,
Ankya, Alingya and the waisted or the Damaru family of drums. (see diagrams).
Oordhwaka
The Oordhwaka drums are placed vertically before the musician and sound is produced by striking them with sticks or the fingers. Prominent among these are the Tabla pair and Chenda.
The Oordhwaka drums are placed vertically before the musician and sound is produced by striking them with sticks or the fingers. Prominent among these are the Tabla pair and Chenda.
Tabla
The Tabla pair is a set of two vertical Oordhwaka drums. The right side is called the Tabla and the left, the Bayan or Dagga. The Tabla has a wooden body with a covering of animal skin, this is held together with leather straps. Between the straps and the wooden body, oblong wooden blocks are placed. These are used for tuning the drums. There is a syahi paste applied in the centre of the animal skin, the tabla can be tuned accurately by striking the rims with a hammer. The body of the bayan is made of clay or metal and is covered with anil'J1al skin which also has syahi paste applied on it. Some musicians do not tune this drum to an accurate pitch.
The Tabla pair is a set of two vertical Oordhwaka drums. The right side is called the Tabla and the left, the Bayan or Dagga. The Tabla has a wooden body with a covering of animal skin, this is held together with leather straps. Between the straps and the wooden body, oblong wooden blocks are placed. These are used for tuning the drums. There is a syahi paste applied in the centre of the animal skin, the tabla can be tuned accurately by striking the rims with a hammer. The body of the bayan is made of clay or metal and is covered with anil'J1al skin which also has syahi paste applied on it. Some musicians do not tune this drum to an accurate pitch.
The tabla pair is used as accompaniment to
vocal and instrumental Hindustani music and with many dance forms of northern
India. The complicated talas of the Hindustani music are played with great
virtuosity on the tabla. Prominent musicians playing the tabla today are-Ustad
Alia Rakha Khan and his son Zakir Hussain, Shafat Ahmed and Samata Prasad to
name a few.
Ankya
The Ankya drums are held horizontally before the musician and usually both sides are covered with animal hide. Sound is produced by striking both sides with sticks or fingers. Today, in this variety, the Mridangam, Pakhawaj, Khol, etc. are prominent. The musician may sit on the floor and play the instrument or hang it from the neck while dancing or standing. Seals which have been excavated of the Indus Civilization show figures of men playing the horizontal drums hung from the neck.
The Ankya drums are held horizontally before the musician and usually both sides are covered with animal hide. Sound is produced by striking both sides with sticks or fingers. Today, in this variety, the Mridangam, Pakhawaj, Khol, etc. are prominent. The musician may sit on the floor and play the instrument or hang it from the neck while dancing or standing. Seals which have been excavated of the Indus Civilization show figures of men playing the horizontal drums hung from the neck.
Alingya
The third variety are the Alingya drums. These drums have the animal hide fixed to a wooden round frame and are embraced or held close to the body with one hand while the other hand is used for playing on the instrument. Under this category, the Duff, Dufflies, etc. are very popular.
Damaru types
The third variety are the Alingya drums. These drums have the animal hide fixed to a wooden round frame and are embraced or held close to the body with one hand while the other hand is used for playing on the instrument. Under this category, the Duff, Dufflies, etc. are very popular.
Damaru types
Another prominent group of drums are the
waisted or Damaru variety. The instruments in this category range from, the
small Huddaka of Himachal Pradesh to the larger instrument known as Timila of
the southern region. The former is struck with the hands while the latter is
hung from the shoulders and played with sticks and fingers. These are also
known as the hourglass variety of drums as their shape resembles an hourglass.
Ghana Vadya
The earliest instruments
invented by man are said to be the Ghana Vadya. Once constructed, these
varieties of instrument do not need special tuning prior to playing. In early
times these instruments were the extension of the human body such as sticks,
clappers, rods, etc. and were also closely related to objects of utility in
daily life such as pots and pans, jhanj, falams, etc. They are principally
rhythmic in function and are best suited as accompaniment to folk and tribal
music and dance.
Jhanj Player, Konarak,
Orissa
In the Sun temple of Konarak, Orissa, we see
this large sculpture nearly 8 f1. high of a lady playing the Jhanj.
Traditional
Theatre
Living traditions occupy a prominent place in
the Indian social system. Any living tradition has a natural flow. There can be
no doubt about the fact that traditional art forms reflect the ideals of the
society, its determination to survive, its ethos, emotions, fellow-feelings,
and so on. Drama in itself is a complete form of arts. It includes in its
framework acting, dialogue, poetry, music, etc.
In community living, the art of singing has its own importance. In all the traditional theatre-forms, songs and the art of singing have an important role to play. Traditional music of the theatre is an expression of the feelings of the community.
In community living, the art of singing has its own importance. In all the traditional theatre-forms, songs and the art of singing have an important role to play. Traditional music of the theatre is an expression of the feelings of the community.
Traditionally the language of ordinary people
has an element of creativity, though not based on classical or grammatical
roots. This kind of creativity is spontaneous, emerging from the circumstances.
When there is intensity of emotions, there is a natural kind of rhythm in the
expressions. It is this natural rhythm from which emerges the traditional
theatre-form. In this art form, sorrow, joy, frustration, hatred and love have
their role and place.
In different regions of India, there are religious
festivals, fairs, gatherings, ritual offerings, prayers, almost throughout the
year. During these occasions, traditional theatre forms are presented. They
reflect the common man’s social attitudes and perceptions. In this social
portrayal, there is also the individual’s role which is given due importance.
Traditional theatre forms incorporate not only
the common man’s interests but there is also a classical element in them. This
classical facet, however, takes on regional, local and folk coloring. It is
possible, that those associated with the classical world of Sanskrit drama,
went to the neighbouring regions after its decline and intermingled with the
local theatre forms. This kind of synthesis, give-and-take must have taken
place on various levels such as written, verbal, classical, contemporary,
national and local.
In traditional theatre forms there are special
styles of dance portraying the entry on to the stage or platform, narrative and
descriptive roles. The best example of descriptive acting is the Bidapat naach.
In this traditional theatre form, emphasis is not on beauty but on acting
itself and narrative and descriptive skills. Dance as a narrative art is the
base of theatre form which can be seen in the traditional theatre form of Bhavai
of Gujarat. In this form, quick or slow foot movement is a means of narration.
The art of making the entry by dancing has been perfected in the traditional
Kashmiri theatre form, Bhand Jashn. The way each character walks and enters the
platform, identifies him. In Koodiyaattam and Ankia Naat, the entry by dancing
itself is complicated and artistic. In the forms, the tempo and basic posture
and gesture identifies the role of the character.
In traditional theatre, age-old forms, customs
and the desire to improvise are intermingled. It is usually when the
significant themes are enacted, that the acting restricts itself to traditional
norms, not deviating from it. But, every time the theme inches towards the
contemporary, the actors improvise as far as dialogue delivery is concerned
In traditional theatre forms there are certain
conventions of presentations depending upon and changing according to the form
and size of the stage or the platform and other available situations. There is
no formal setup governing the entry or exit of the actors. Depending on the
situation or context, the actors enter into the stage and enact their role
without being formally introduced. After a particular event or incident is
over, all the artists make an exit, or all of them sit down on the sides of the
stage or near the backdrop, conveying the change of a scene
In traditional theatre forms, there is no such
thing as episodes. There is always continuity in its theme, structure and
presentation. There is also a scope for improvisation and incorporation of new
references leading to subtle extension in the story-line. There is direct and
intimate communication between the actors and the audience.
Traditional theatre forms have definitely been
influenced by industrial civilization, industrialization, and urbanization. The
socio-cultural aspects of these influences should be carefully studied. There
was a time when Kanpur became the centre of the traditional theatre Nautanki.
Artists, dancers and singers produced plays based on local heroes, their
popularity and traditional love stories. Thus, a local theatre form acquired
significance in the field of entertainment.
Traditional theatre forms have a common
distinguishing feature that is the element of simplicity. What is the
underlying force of traditional theatre forms that has enabled it to survive
and maintain its simplicity? The fact remains, that it is the immediate,
direct, realistic and rhythmic relationship that the spectators are able to
develop with the artists of traditional theatre forms which is generally not
experienced in other art forms. It is reflected in the applaud by the
spectators by means of clapping their hands.
Secondly the development of traditional theatre
forms is based on such local and regional peculiarities which are not bound and
restricted by social and economic divisions, limitations, etc. Tradional art
forms have influenced classical art forms and vice-versa. It is an eternal
journey in the sphere of ‘culture’
In traditional theatre forms, characters keep
changing their place on the stage to be more impressive and to give the
situation a greater significance. This technique also reduces the chance of
boredom through repetition and stillness. Dialogues delivery is usually carried
out in a high pitch. This helps the actors in reaching out to a larger
audience. The artists always add something or the other to the original
dialogue on their own. The changes brought through improvisations, make the
spectators ecstatic. Also, it establishes a direct relationship between the
artists and the spectators. The clown also plays a similar role. While being
humorous, he also touches upon the socio-economic, political issues and
situations with lot of satire. There are different methods too, in the way the
clown makes his appearance. If the king, in traditional theatre forms, decides
on a step not beneficial for the people at large, the clown appears and takes
the side of the common man. He makes the audience laugh and at the same time
discloses the anti-people attitude of the king.
DIFFERENT FORMS OF
TRADITIONAL THEATRE
Bhand Pather, the
traditional theatre form of Kashmir, is a unique combination of dance, music
and acting. Satire, wit and parody are preferred for inducing laughter. In this
theatre form, music is provided with surnai, nagaara and dhol. Since the actors
of Bhand Pather are mainly from the farming community, the impact of their way
of living, ideals and sensitivity is discernible.
Originally the theatre form Swang, was mainly
music-based. Gradually, prose too, played its role in the dialogues. The
softness of emotions, accomplishment of rasa alongwith the development of
character can be seen in this theatre form. The two important styles of Swang
are from Rohtak and Haathras. In the style belonging to Rohtak, the language
used is Haryanvi (Bangru) and in Haathras, it is Brajbhasha.
Nautanki is
usually associated with Uttar Pradesh. The most popular centres of this
traditional theatre form are Kanpur, Lucknow and Haathras. The meters used in
the verses are: Doha, Chaubola, Chhappai, Behar-e-tabeel. There was a time when
only men acted in Nautanki but nowadays, women have also started taking part in
the performances. Among those remembered with reverence is Gulab Bai of Kanpur.
She gave a new dimension to this old theatre form.
Raasleela is
based exclusively on Lord Krishna legends; it is believed that Nand Das wrote
the initial plays based on the life of Krishna. In this theatre form the
dialogues in prose combined beautifully with songs and scenes from Krishna's
pranks.
Bhavai is the
traditional theatre form of Gujarat. The centers of this form are Kutch and
Kathiawar. The instruments used in Bhavai are: bhungal, tabla, flute,
pakhaawaj, rabaab, sarangi, manjeera, etc. In Bhavai, there is a rare synthesis
of devotional and romantic sentiments.
Fairs in honour of gods, or religious rituals
and ceremonies have within their framework musical plays are known as Jatra. This form was
born and nurtured in Bengal. Krishna Jatra became popular due to Chaitanya's
influence. Later, however, worldly love stories too, found a place in Jatra.
The earlier form of Jatra has been musical. Dialogues were added at later
stage. The actors themselves describe the change of scene, the place of action,
etc.
Maach is
the traditional theatre form of Madhya Pradesh. The term Maach is used for the
stage itself as also for the play. In this theatre form songs are given
prominence in between the dialogues. The term for dialogue in this form is bol
and rhyme in narration is termed vanag. The tunes of this theatre form are
known as rangat.
Bhaona is
a presentation of the Ankia Naat of Assam. In Bhaona cultural glimpses of
Assam, Bengal Orissa, Mathura and Brindavan can be seen. The Sutradhaar, or
narrator begins the story, first in Sanskrit and then in either Brajboli or
Assamese.
Tamaasha is
a traditional folk theatre form of Maharashtra. It has evolved from the folk
forms such as Gondhal, Jagran and Kirtan. Unlike other theatre forms, in
Tamaasha the female actress is the chief exponent of dance movements in the
play. She is known as Murki. Classical music, footwork at lightning-speed, and
vivid gestures make it possible to portray all the emotions through dance.
Dashavatar is
the most developed theatre form of the Konkan and Goa regions. The performers
personify the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu-the god of preservation and creativity.
The ten incarnations are Matsya (fish), Kurma (tortoise), Varaha (boar),
Narsimha (lion-man), Vaman (dwarf), Parashuram, Rama, Krishna (or Balram),
Buddha and Kalki. Apart from stylized make-up, the Dashavatar performers wear
masks of wood and papier mache.
Krishnattam, folk
theatre of Kerala, came into existence in the middle of 17th century A.D. under
the patronage of King Manavada of Calicut. Krishnattam is a cycle of eight
plays performed for eight consecutive days. The plays are Avataram, Kaliamandana,
Rasa krida, kamasavadha, Swayamvaram, Bana Yudham, Vivida Vadham, and
Swargarohana. The episodes are based on the theme of Lord Krishna - his birth,
childhood pranks and various deeds depicting victory of good over evil.
Mudiyettu,
traditional folk theatre form of Kerala is celebrated in the month of
Vrischikam (November-December). It is usually performed only in the Kali
temples of Kerala, as an oblation to the Goddess. It depicts the triumph of
goddess Bhadrakali over the asura Darika. The seven characters in
Mudiyettu-Shiva, Narada, Darika, Danavendra, Bhadrakali, Kooli and Koimbidar
(Nandikeshvara) are all heavily made-up.
Theyyam is
a traditional and extremely popular folk theatre form of Kerala. The word
'Theyyam' is derived from the Sanskrit word 'Daivam' meaning God. Hence it is
called God's dance. The tradition of worshipping of spirits of ancestors, folk
heroes, and deities of various diseases and ailments can be traced back to
ancient times in South India. Theyyam is performed by various castes to appease
and worship these spirits. One of the distinguishing features of Theyyam is the
colorful costume and awe-inspiring headgears (mudi) nearly 5 to 6 feet high
made of areca nut splices, bamboos, leaf sheaths of areca nut and wooden planks
and dyed into different strong colors using turmeric, wax and arac.
Yakshagaana,
traditional theatre form of Karnataka, is based on mythological stories and
Puranas. The most popular episodes are from the Mahabharata i.e. Draupadi
swayamvar, Subhadra vivah, Abhimanyu vadh, Karna-Arjun yuddh and from Ramayana
i.e. Raajyaabhishek, Lav-kush Yuddh, Baali-Sugreeva yuddha and Panchavati.
Therukoothu, the
most popular form of folk drama of Tamil Nadu, literally means "street
play". It is mostly performed at the time of annual temple festivals of
Mariamman (Rain goddess) to achieve rich harvest. At the core of the extensive
repertoire of Therukoothu there is a cycle of eight plays based on the life of
Draupadi. Kattiakaran, the Sutradhara of the Therukoothu performance, gives the
gist of the play to the audience and Komali entertains the audience with his
buffoonery.
Puppetry in India
A puppet is one of the most remarkable and ingenious
inventions of the man. It has been said that a puppet has to be more than his
live counterpart for it is definitely the suggestive element that is more
captivating and enduring in a puppet.
Ancient Hindu
philosophers have paid the greatest tribute to puppeteers. They have likened
God Almighty to a puppeteer and the entire universe to a puppet stage. Srimad Bhagavata,
the great epic depicting the story of Lord Krishna in his childhood say that
with three strings-Satta, Raja and Tama, the God
manipulates each object in the universe as a marionette.
In Sanskrit terminology Puttalika and Puttika means ‘little sons’. The root of Puppet is derived from the latin word ‘Pupa’ meaning a doll. India is said to be the home of puppets, but it is yet to awaken to its unlimited possibilities. The earliest reference to the art of puppetry is found in Tamil classic ‘Silappadikaaram’ written around the 1st or 2nd century B.C.
Natyashastra, the masterly treatise on dramaturgy written sometime during 2nd century BC to 2nd century AD., does not refer to the art of puppetry but the producer-cum-director of the human theatre has been termed as ‘Sutradhar’ meaning the holder of strings. The word might have found its place in theatre-terminology long before Natyashastra was written but it must come from marionette theatre. Puppetry, therefore, must have originated in India more than 500 years before Christ.
In Sanskrit terminology Puttalika and Puttika means ‘little sons’. The root of Puppet is derived from the latin word ‘Pupa’ meaning a doll. India is said to be the home of puppets, but it is yet to awaken to its unlimited possibilities. The earliest reference to the art of puppetry is found in Tamil classic ‘Silappadikaaram’ written around the 1st or 2nd century B.C.
Natyashastra, the masterly treatise on dramaturgy written sometime during 2nd century BC to 2nd century AD., does not refer to the art of puppetry but the producer-cum-director of the human theatre has been termed as ‘Sutradhar’ meaning the holder of strings. The word might have found its place in theatre-terminology long before Natyashastra was written but it must come from marionette theatre. Puppetry, therefore, must have originated in India more than 500 years before Christ.
Almost all types of
puppets are found in India. Puppetry throughout the ages has held an important
place in traditional entertainment. Like traditional theatre, themes for puppet
theatre are mostly based on epics and legends. Puppets from different parts of
the country have their own identity. Regional styles of painting and sculpture
are reflected in them.
Puppetry has been
successfully used to motivate emotionally and physically handicapped students
to develop their mental and physical faculties. Awareness programmes about the
conservation of the natural and cultural environment have also proved to be
useful. These programmes aim at sensitising the students to the beauty in word,
sound, form, colour and movement. The aesthetic satisfaction derived from
making of puppets and communicating through them helps in the all round
development of the personality of the child.
Stories adapted from
puranic literature, local myths and legends usually form the content of
traditional puppet theatre in India which, in turn, imbibes elements of all
creative expressions like painting, sculpture, music, dance, drama, etc. The
presentation of puppet programmes involves the creative efforts of many people
working together.
1.
String Puppets
2.
Shadow Puppets
3.
Rod Puppets
4.
Glove Puppets
In modern times,
educationists all over the world have realised the potential of puppetry as a
medium for communication. Many institutions and individuals in India are
involving students and teachers in the use of puppetry for communicating
educational concepts.
1. String Puppets:
India has a rich and ancient tradition of string puppets or
marionettes. Marionettes having jointed limbs controlled by strings allow far
greater flexibility and are, therefore, the most articulate of the puppets.
Rajasthan, Orissa, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are some of the regions where this
form of puppetry has flourished.
1.1. Kathputli, Rajasthan:
The traditional marionettes of Rajasthan are known as
Kathputli. Carved from a single piece of wood, these puppets are like large
dolls that are colourfully dressed. Their costumes and headgears are designed
in the medieval Rajasthani style of dress, which is prevalent even today.
The Kathputli is
accompanied by a highly dramatised version of the regional music. Oval faces,
large eyes, arched eyebrows and large lips are some of the distinct facial
features of these string puppets. These puppets wear long trailing skirts and
do not have legs. Puppeteers manipulate them with two to five strings which are
normally tied to their fingers and not to a prop or a support.
1.2. Kundhei, Orissa:
The string puppets of Orissa are known as Kundhei. Made of
light wood, the Orissa puppets have no legs but wear long flowing skirts. They
have more joints and are, therefore, more versatile, articulate and easy to
manipulate. The puppeteers often hold a wooden prop, triangular in shape, to
which strings are attached for manipulation. The costumes of Kundhei resemble
those worn by actors of the Jatra traditional theatre. The music is drawn from
the popular tunes of the region and is sometimes influenced by the music of
Odissi dance.
1.3. Gombeyatta, Karnataka:
The string puppets of Karnataka are called Gombeyatta. They
are styled and designed like the characters of Yakshagana, the traditional
theatre form of the region. The Gombeyatta puppet figures are highly stylized
and have joints at the legs, shoulders, elbows, hips and knees. These puppets
are manipulated by five to seven strings tied to a prop. Some of the more
complicated movements of the puppet are manipulated by two to three puppeteers
at a time. Episodes enacted in Gombeyatta are usually based on Prasangas of the
Yakshagana plays. The music that accompanies is dramatic and beautifully blends
folk and classical elements.
1.4. Bommalattam,
Tamil Nadu:
Puppets from Tamil
Nadu, known as Bommalattam combine the techniques of both rod and string
puppets. They are made of wood and the strings for manipulation are tied to an
iron ring which the puppeteer wears like a crown on his head.
A few puppets have
jointed arms and hands, which are manipulated by rods. The Bommalattam puppets
are the largest, heaviest and the most articulate of all traditional Indian
marionettes. A puppet may be as big as 4.5 feet in height weighing about ten
kilograms. Bommalattam theatre has elaborate preliminaries which are divided
into four parts - Vinayak
Puja, Komali, Amanattam and Pusenkanattam
2. Shadow Puppets:
India has the richest variety of types and styles of shadow
puppets. Shadow puppets are flat figures. They are cut out of leather, which
has been treated to make it translucent. Shadow puppets are pressed against the
screen with a strong source of light behind it. The manipulation between the
light and the screen make silhouettes or colourful shadows, as the case may be,
for the viewers who sit in front of the screen. This tradition of shadow
puppets survives in Orissa. Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and
Tamil Nadu.
2.1. Togalu
Gombeyatta
The shadow theatre of Karnataka is known as Togalu
Gombeyatta. These puppets are mostly small in size. The puppets however differ
in size according to their social status, for instance, large size for kings
and religious characters and smaller size for common people or servants.
2.2. Tholu Bommalata
Tholu Bommalata, Andhra Pradesh's shadow theatre has the
richest and strongest tradition. The puppets are large in size and have jointed
waist, shoulders, elbows and knees. They are coloured on both sides. Hence,
these puppets throw coloured shadows on the screen. The music is dominantly
influenced by the classical music of the region and the theme of the puppet
plays are drawn from the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas.
2.3. Ravanachchaya
The most theatrically exciting is the Ravanachhaya of Orissa.
The puppets are in one piece and have no joints. They are not coloured, hence
throw opaque shadows on the screen. The manipulation requires great dexterity,
since there are no joints. The puppets are made of deer skin and are conceived
in bold dramatic poses. Apart from human and animal characters, many props such
as trees, mountains, chariots, etc. are also used. Although, Ravanachhaya
puppets are smaller in size-the largest not more than two feet have no jointed
limbs, they create very sensitive and lyrical shadows.
3. Rod Puppets
Rod puppets are an extension of glove-puppets, but often much
larger and supported and manipulated by rods from below. This form of puppetry
now is found mostly in West Bengal and Orissa.
3.1. Putul Nautch,
West Bengal
The traditional rod puppet form of West Bengal is known as
Putul Nautch. They are carved from wood and follow the various artistic styles
of a particular region. In Nadia district of West Bengal, rod-puppets used to
be of human size like the Bunraku puppets of Japan. This form is now almost
extinct. The Bengal rod-puppets, which survive are about 3 to 4 feet in height
and are costumed like the actors of Jatra, a traditional theatre form prevalent
in the State. These puppets have mostly three joints. The heads, supported by
the main rod, is joined at the neck and both hands attached to rods are joined
at the shoulders.
The technique of manipulation is interesting and highly
theatrical. A bamboo-made hub is tied firmly to the waist of the puppeteer on
which the rod holding the puppet is placed. The puppeteers each holding one
puppet, stand behind a head-high curtain and while manipulating the rods also
move and dance imparting corresponding movements to the puppets. While the
puppeteers themselves sing and deliver the stylized prose dialogues, a group of
musicians, usually three to four in numbers, sitting at the side of the stage
provide the accompanying music with a drum, harmonium and cymbals. The music
and verbal text have close similarity with the Jatra theatre.
The Orissa Rod
puppets are much smaller in size, usually about twelve to eighteen inches. They
also have mostly three joints, but the hands are tied to strings instead of
rods. Thus elements of rod and string puppets are combined in this form of
puppetry. The technique of manipulation is somewhat different. The Orissa
rod-puppeteers squat on the ground behind a screen and manipulate. Again it is
more operatic in its verbal contents since impromptu prose dialogues are
infrequently used. Most of the dialogues are sung. The music blends folk tunes
with classical Odissi tunes. The music begins with a short piece of ritual
orchestral preliminary called Stuti and is followed by the play.
The puppets of Orissa
are smaller than those from Bengal or Andhra Pradesh. Rod puppet shows of
Orissa are more operatic and prose dialogues are seldom used.
3.2. Yamapuri, Bihar
The traditional Rod puppet of Bihar is known as Yampuri.
These puppets are made of wood. Unlike the traditional Rod puppets of West
Bengal and Orissa, these puppets are in one piece and have no joints. As these puppets
have no joints, the manipulation is different from other Rod puppets and
requires greater dexterity.
4. Glove Puppets:
Glove puppets are
also known as sleeve, hand or palm puppets. The head is made of papier mache,
cloth or wood, with two hands emerging from just below the neck. The rest of
the figure consists of a long flowing skirt. These puppets are like limp dolls,
but in the hands of an able puppeteer, are capable of producing a wide range of
movements. The manipulation technique is simple the movements are controlled by
the human hand the first finger inserted in the head and the middle finger and
the thumb are the two arms of the puppet. With the help of these three fingers,
the glove puppet comes alive.
The tradition of
glove puppets in India is popular in Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal and
Kerala. In Uttar Pradesh, glove puppet plays usually present social themes,
whereas in Orissa such plays are based on stories of Radha and Krishna. In
Orissa, the puppeteer plays on the dholak with one hand and
manipulates the puppet with the other. The delivery of the dialogues, the
movement of the puppet and the beat of the dholak are well synchronised and
create a dramatic atmosphere.
4.1. Pavakoothu,
Kerala:
In Kerala, the traditional glove puppet play is called
Pavakoothu. It came into existence during the 18th century due to the influence
of Kathakali, the famous classical dance-drama of Kerala, on puppet
performances. In Pavakoothu, the height of a puppet varies from one foot to two
feet. The head and the arms are carved of wood and joined together with thick
cloth, cut and stitched into a small bag.
The face of the puppets is decorated with paints, small and
thin pieces of gilded tin, the feathers of the peacock, etc. The manipulator
puts his hand into the bag and moves the hands and head of the puppet. The
musical instruments used during the performance are Chenda, Chengiloa, Ilathalam and
Shankha the
conch. The theme for Glove puppet plays in Kerala is based on the episodes from
either the Ramayana or the Mahabharata.
Martial arts in India
Martial
arts are a part of India’s ancient culture and traditional games. Originally a
traditional form of martial art that started in South India, and now it has
different names and different forms in the culture of the regions in India.
Khusti, the Indian wrestling is
also a part of Indian Martial arts found throughout the India. Indian martial
arts have an important influence in the development of modern Asian martial
arts. Nowadays a sense of self-defense and for fitness lots of people are
opting for martial arts.As in other respects of Indian culture, Indian martial
arts can be roughly divided into northern and southern styles.
Kalarippayattu: Kalarippayattu is a
famous Indian martial art from land of attraction Kerala and one of the oldest fighting systems
in existence. It is practiced in most of the part of south India. A kalari is
the school or training hall where martial arts are taught. It includes strikes,
kicks and some weapon based practiced, Footwork patterns are most important key
in Kalarippayattu. It is the best Indian martial art that has been used in many
movies to make it popular, like Ashoka and the Myth.
Silambam: Silambamis a
weapon-based Indian martial art from Tamil Nadu. Every state has it own style
of martial arts. A wide variety of weapons are used in silamban, some of which
are not found anywhere else in the world. Silambam art also used animal
movements of snake, tiger, eagle forms and footwork patterns are play a key
role here as well. Another part of Silambam is Kuttu varisai, it is the unarmed
kind of martial art.
Gatka: Gatkais weapon-based
Indian martial art basically created by the Sikhs of Punjab. There are many
weapons used in Gatka like, Stick, Talwar, kirpan and kataar. The attacking and
defense methods are based upon the positions of the hands feet and nature of
weapons used. It is also displayed during the different celebrations or at
fairs in Punjab.
Gatka is a
traditional south Asian form
of combat-training in which wooden sticks are used to simulate swords in
sparring matches. In modern
usage, it commonly refers to the northwestern Indian martial arts, which should
more properly be called shastara
vidiyā
(Sanskrit sastra-vidya or "science of blades"). In
English, the terms gatka and shastar
vidya are very often used
specifically in relation to Panjabi-Sikhs. In actuality, the art is not unique
to any particular ethno-cultural group or religion but has been the traditional
form of combat throughout north and Pakistan for centuries. Attacks
and counterattacks vary from one community to another but the basic techniques
are the same. This article will primarily use the extended definition of gatka,
making it synonymous with shastara-vidiya
Musti yuddha: It is unarmed martial art from the oldest
city of India “Varanasi”. Technique used in these martial arts is punches,
kicks, knees and elbow strikes. This style is a complete art of physical,
mental and spiritual development. This art is very rarely visible but was very
popular in
Middle
age.
Thang Ta: Thang Ta is popular
term for the ancient Manipuri Martial Art also known as HUYEN LALLONG. Manipuri
martial arts with swords and spears, is a strong yet gracefully sophisticated
art.
Thang-ta is a weapon-based Indian martial art created by the
Meitei of Manipur. In the Manipuri lauguage, thang means sword and ta means spear, referring to the art's
primary weapons. The spear can be used in its non-missile form while in close
or thrown from afar. Other weapons include the shield and the axe. Because of Manipur’s cultural similarity,
geographic proximity and ethnic ties with Myanmar,
thang-ta is closely related to banshay
Thang-ta can be
practiced in three different ways: ritual, demonstration and combat. The first
way is related to the tantric practices and is entirely ritualistic in nature.
The second way consists of a spectacular performance involving sword and spear
dances. These routines can be converted into actual fighting practices. The
third way is the true combat application. Thang-ta is closely related to
certain war-dances, often blurring the line between dance and combat forms, such as thangkairol (sword dance) and khosarol (spear dance). Many ritualistic dances
in Manipur were traditionally performed by martial artists such as the spear
dance for funerals or the sacred thengou dance.
Lathi: Lathi is an ancient
armed martial art of India. It also refers one of the world’s oldest weapons
used in martial arts. Lathi or stick martial arts practiced in Punjab and
Bengal region of India. Lathi still remains a popular sport in Indian villages.
Bengal
and Bangladesh
Bengali war-dances
bear testament to the weapons once used in the Bengal region. Today most of
these weapons are used only in choreographed fights, including dao khela (knife fighting) and fala khela (sword fighting. Traditional
stick-fighting (Lathi Khela) is still used in free sparring today. The sticks
may be short like a cudgel or a long staff. The former are sometimes paired with
a shield
Mardani Khel: Mardani Khel is an
armed method of martial art created by the Maratha. This traditional martial
art of Maharashtra is practiced in Kolhapur.
Maharashtra
The Marathas developed their
fighting style based on the state's hilly geography. Mardaani
Khel today teaches armed techniques for use in single combat as well as
defense against several opponents. Other weapons include the sword, shield,
spear, dagger, kukri, double deer horns, and bow and arrow
Pari-khanda: Pari-khandaa style of
sword and shield fighting from Bihar. This art is created by the rajputs.
Pari-khanda steps and techniques are also used in Chau dance.
Odisha
The Orissan martial art traces back
to the paika class of warriors who were particularly known for
their use of the khanda or double-edge straight sword. During
times of peace, the paika would hone their skills through martial dances,
forms-training and various acrobatics. Their descendants have preserved these
exercises in training halls called Paika akhanda, and demonstrate them mainly
through street performances. Their method of sword training called pari-khanda is
still used as the first part of the Chhau dance other weapons include
the staff and gauntlet-sword.
A general note on Performing Arts:
The folk music and dances of agricultural communities
celebrate the rhythms of daily life, the turn of the seasons, the highlights of
the agricultural calendar, religious festivals and important events that
punctuate the flow of life, such as births and marriages. While folk music and
dance share common themes and concerns, there is a wide variety of forms. Along
the entire Himalayan region, from Kashmir to Darjeeling, folk dancers link arms
and sway gracefully in undulating movements, celebrate the sowing of the wheat
crop; few can resist the infectious beat of the dholak, the two-sided
drum, and pairs of dancers take turns to execute complex acrobatic movements in
the centre of a circle of abandoned dancers. Women perform the Giddha, also
characterised by its spontaneous energy. Rajasthani women, their faces covered
with flowing veils, are swirls of colour as they pirouette in theGhoomar dance,
while their counterparts in Gujarat perform the famous Garba, dancing in a
circle with batons. Their men perform the Dandiya Ras, a more vigorous version of
the same dance, leaping and crouching in twirling patterns. In the fishing
communities of Maharashtra, men and women link arms and dance together and the
women climb on to the men's shoulders to form pyramids. The women's Lavani dance from
this area is notable for its unabashed sensuality. There are also several forms
of dance-drama or folk theatre, such as the Nautanki of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh
and Bihar, the Bhavai of
Gujarat, the irreverent Tamasha of
Maharashtra, the Bengali Jatra, the
spectacular Yakshagana of
Karnataka and Theyyam of
Kerala, all of which narrate legends of local heroes, kings and deities.
Martial art forms throughout the country have been stylized to quasi dance
forms, notable among which are the martial dances of the North-eastern hill
tribes, the Lazim dances
of Maharashtra, theKalaripayattu of
Kerala, and the highly stylized masked Chhau dances of Orissa, West Bengal
and Bihar
Together these dances have formed a vast reservoir from which
the classical dances have drawn sustenance. There are seven major classical
dance styles — Bharatnatyam from
Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, Kathakali,
a classical dance-drama from Kerala, Manipuri from
Manipur, Kathak from
Uttar Pradesh, Odissi from
Orissa, and Kuchipudi from
Andhra Pradesh and Sattriya from
Assam which has recently been included in the fold of Classical Dances. In
their present format, their history cannot be traced back to over two to three
hundred years, but they all have links with the ancient and medieval literary,
sculptural and musical traditions of India and of their particular regions.
They all adhere to the canons of classical dance laid down in the Natya
Shastra, a second century C.E. text ascribed to the sage Bharata, to whom it
was supposedly revealed by the Creator, Brahma.
Folk theatre and dance-drama were the common roots of both
classical dance and theatre , the traditions of both of which were elaborated
upon the Natyashastra.
Kalidasa is India's most famous poet and dramatist, and his plays are still
performed today. Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, the last ruler of Awadh, was a noted
playwright and staged elaborate dramas at his court.
*****
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